Video copilot element 3d crack

Video Copilot Element 3D: Today’s most important and most precious software is Video Copilot Element 3D V2 Crack Plus ccleanerfreedownloadwindows. blogspot. com a is a software is used to edit the videos. It provide many beautiful effects. Video Copilot Element 3D v RePack + CE Full Crack Download Video Copilot Element 3D v RePack + CE Full Crack Edition Download Clean for After Effects! Element 3D is a gigh Performance After Effects™ Plug-in for creating Motion Design & Visual FX! VIDEO COPILOT JetStrike Pack for Element 3D crack Download Click on below button to start VIDEO COPILOT JetStrike Pack for Element 3D crack Download. This is complete offline installer and standalone setup for VIDEO COPILOT JetStrike Pack for Element 3D. This would be compatible with both 32 bit and 64 bit windows.





How to Get Element 3D v2.2 for FREE (Windows)









This is equal to 8. Compared to ion drives, MPDs have good thrust densities and have no need for charge neutralization. However, only Kitaniji is formally held to this rule the way the Players are. Your site is my favourite for ProShow Gold 6 Crack. Since Neku doesn't notice and this didn't happen in the original Japanese version, it may be just as well be a translation error as Foreshadowing that Joshua has seen him before. ReplyDeleteAmee Conine28 March at ajcon75 gmail. The grids are made of C-C, to reduce erosion.

Video Copilot Element 3D: Today’s most important and most precious software is Video Copilot Element 3D V2 Crack Plus ccleanerfreedownloadwindows. blogspot. com a is a software is used to edit the videos. It provide many beautiful effects. Video Copilot Element 3D v RePack + CE Full Crack Download Video Copilot Element 3D v RePack + CE Full Crack Edition Download Clean for After Effects! Element 3D is a gigh Performance After Effects™ Plug-in for creating Motion Design & Visual FX! VIDEO COPILOT JetStrike Pack for Element 3D crack Download Click on below button to start VIDEO COPILOT JetStrike Pack for Element 3D crack Download. This is complete offline installer and standalone setup for VIDEO COPILOT JetStrike Pack for Element 3D. This would be compatible with both 32 bit and 64 bit windows.







GAVIN'S PARATROOPERS: THE TYPE OF MEN UPDATED 1 August Actual Video clip of U. S. Army Paratroopers exiting a CB Starlifter. Actual Video.





VIDEO COPILOT JetStrike Pack for Element 3D crack Download Click on below button to start VIDEO COPILOT JetStrike Pack for Element 3D crack Download. This is complete offline installer and standalone setup for VIDEO COPILOT JetStrike Pack for Element 3D. This would be compatible with both 32 bit and 64 bit windows.





Video Copilot Element 3D: Today’s most important and most precious software is Video Copilot Element 3D V2 Crack Plus ccleanerfreedownloadwindows. blogspot. com a is a software is used to edit the videos. It provide many beautiful effects.





A Walkers Film New Site Is Here Follow Us Now To Our Journey - (Click Here) For Now We Cant Crack The Video Copilot Element 3D V2 Because We Think That It is.





/**/ ProShow Gold 6 Crack Registration Key is a whole in one fans demonstration tool. ProShow Gold 6 Crack Keygen have many tools to create slideshows, etc. Pro.





Artwork by Dean Ellis (for The Last Hurrah Of The Golden Horde) There is a nice basic overview of propulsion systems here. You can spend lots of time researching.





Element 3D version is an advanced 3D object and particle render engine for Windows. It is a high performance After Effects plug-in.





GAVIN'S PARATROOPERS: THE TYPE OF MEN UPDATED 1 August Actual Video clip of U. S. Army Paratroopers exiting a CB Starlifter. Actual Video.

Microsoft's implementation copilot 3d video crack element not worried

From a practical standpoint, the proton-antiproton annihilation reaction produces two things: The charged pions from the reaction are used directly as thrust, instead of being used to heat a propellant. Shapes generally indicate what you'll be expected to battle, but it varies based on which day of the game you're playing and difficulty level — so the same symbol can represent the jellyfish sequence and kangaroos. These weigh 22 tonnes with stiffeners and neutron shielding. The mirror design shown is a tube of 11 Tesla superconducting magnetic coils, with choke coils for reflection at the ends. In the words of a NASA engineer the problem is "we can't make an extension cord long enough.

So of the gases nitrogen might be preferrable, even though you can get better specific impulse out of propellants with lower molecular weight. Using more calculations that were not explained figure was produced.

The curve is the relative intensity of a charged pion at a given kinetic energy in MeV. The MeV pions are the most intense there are more of them, the average energy is MeV. Mean Life is the lifespan not half-life of a pion at that energy in nanoseconds.

The range of a pion at that energy can be measured on the RANGE scales below, traveling through vacuum, hydrogen H 2 propellant at atm, nitrogen N 2 propellant at atm, and tungsten radiation shielding. Sadly gamma rays cannot be used to propel the rocket well, actually there are a couple of strange designs that do use gammas, all they do is kill anything living and destroy electronic equipment.

So you have to shield the crew and electronics with radiation shielding. This is one of the big drawbacks to antimatter rockets. Gamma-rays would be useful if you were using antimatter as some sort of weapon instead of propulsion.

A small number of "prompt" gamma-rays are produced directly from the annihilation reaction. The prompt gammas have a whopping MeV, but they only contribute about 0. A much larger amount of "delayed" gamma-rays are produced by the neutral pions decaying 90 attoseconds after the antimatter reaction.

As mentioned above, the antimatter reaction is basically spitting out charged pions and gamma rays. The pions can be absorbed by the propellant and their energy utilized. The gamma rays on the other hand are just an inconvenient blast of deadly radiation traveling in all directions.

The only redeeming feature is gamma rays are not neutrons, so at least they don't infect the ship structure with neutron embrittlement and turn the ship radioactive with neutron activation. Since gamma rays are rays, not particles, they have that pesky exponential attenuation with shielding.

It is like Zemo's paradox of Achilles and the tortoise, making the radiation shielding thicker reduces the amount of gamma rays penetrating but no matter how thick it becomes the gamma leakage never quite goes to zero.

Particle shielding on the other hand have a thickness where nothing penetrates. Gamma rays with energies higher than MeV have a "attenuation coefficient" of about 0. Since tungsten has a density of Table gives the attunation for various thickness of tungsten radiation shields.

This tells us that a 2 centimeter thick shield would absorb The main things that have to be shielded are the crew, the electronics, the cryogenic tankage, and the magnetic coils if this particular antimatter engine utilzes coils.

The radiation flux will be pretty bad. Anyway the thrust power basically is the fraction of the antimatter annihilation energy that becomes charged pions. The coil coolant systems should be able to handle that.

The superconducting coils do not care about the biological dose since the coils are already dead. But you do not get something for nothing. The 10 centimeters of coil shield prevent the radiation from hitting the coils but it does not make the radiation magically disappear.

The coil shield will need a large heat radiator system capable of rejecting You will need more to shadow shield the living crew and sensitive electronics. Our antimatter gamma rays have an average energy of twice that, MeV not MeV.

Let's assume the crew habitat module is 10 meters away from the engine instead of 1 meter. Radiation falls of according to the inverse square law. Extrapolating further, a single MeV gamma ray photon has 3.

This means a This is equal to 8. Which is quite larger than 1 Curie. This is very very bad since a mere 80 sieverts is enough to instantly put a person into a coma with certain death following in less than 24 hours.

The poor crew will get that dose in about half a second. A shadow shield is indicated. Looking at table again, we see that 14 centimeters of tungsten has an attunation factor of 1. This will reduce the dose to 0.

In the conceptual schematic, the reaction chamber is about 1 meter in diameter. The pressure walls have an equivalent thickness of 2 centimeters of tungsten, absorbing most of the gamma rays and coverting them into heat. The pressure walls are cooled by hydrogen flowing through channels in the wall.

The hot hydrogen is sprayed as a film over the exhaust nozzle to protect it from the ultrahot hydrogen plasma blasting out from the antimatter reaction. As per the calculations above, the superconducting coils are shielded with 10 centimeters of tungsten, with the thermal shields aimed at the antimatter annihilation point.

Also as per the calculations above, the personnel will be protected by a shadow shield 14 centimeters thick and 0. This will provide a 10 meter diameter shadow at a distance of 10 meters from the engine, for the habitat module and other ship parts to shelter in.

The reaction chamber is 2, kilograms, each thermal shield ring is kilograms, and the shadow shield is kilograms. The gamma rays and pions are captured in the tungsten target, heating it. The tungsten target in turn heats the hydrogen.

Produces high thrust but the specific impulse is limited due to material constraints translation: The tungsten also acts as the biological shadow shield. According to Some Examples of Propulsion Applications Using Antimatter by Bruno Augenstein a tungsten block heated by antiprotons can heat hydrogen propellant up to a specific impulse of 1, to 1, seconds, depending up on the pressure the hydrogen operates at.

So even though this engine has a thrust-to-weight ratio higher than one, the citizens are going to protest if you get the bright idea of using this rocket to boost payloads into orbit. Because an accident is going to be quite spectactular.

Microscopic amounts of antimatter are injected into large amounts of water or hydrogen propellant. The intense reaction flashes the propellant into plasma, which exits through the exhaust nozzle. Magnetic fields constrain the charged pions from the reaction so they heat the propellant, but uncharged pions escape and do not contribute any heating.

Less efficient than AM-Solid core, but can achieve a higher specific impulse. For complicated reasons, a spacecraft optimized to use an antimatter propulsion system need never to have a mass ratio greater than 4.

No matter what the required delta V, the spacecraft requires a maximum of 3. Well, actually this is not true if the delta V required approaches the speed of light, but it works for normal interplanetary delta Vs.

And the engine has to be able to handle the waste heat. Similar to antimatter gas core, but more antimatter is used, raising the propellant temperature to levels that convert it into plasma. A magnetic bottle is required to contain the plasma.

Refer to the report if you want the actual equations. The hydrogen propellant is injected radially across magnetic field lines and the antiprotons are injected axially along magnetic field lines. The antimatter explodes, heating the propellant into plasma, for as long as the magnetic bottle can contain the explosion.

After that, the magnetic mirror at one end is relaxed, forming a magnetic nozzle allowing the hot propellant plasma to exit. The cycle repeats for each pulse. Remember that the hydrogen nucleus is a single proton, convenient to be annihilated by a fuel antiproton.

The magnetic bottle contains the antiprotons, charged particles from the antimatter reaction, and the ionized hydrogen propellant. Otherwise all of these would wreck the engine. The magnetic bottle is created by a solenoid coil, with the open ends capped by magnetic mirrors.

At moderate to high densities the engine is a plasma core antimatter rocket. Compared to beam-core, the plasma core has a lower exhaust velocity but a higher thrust. And of course it can shift gears to any desired combination even outside its range by adding cold hydrogen propellant to the plasma which is the standard method.

The reaction is confined to a magnetic bottle instead of a chamber constructed out of metal or other matter, because the energy of antimatter easily vaporizes matter. At moderate hydrogen densities there is a problem with the hydrogen sucking up every single bit of the thermal energy, lots of the charged particle reaction products escapes the hydrogen propellant without heating up hydrogen atoms.

This is a waste of expensive antimatter. At high hydrogen densities there is a problem with bremsstrahlung radiation. Charged particles from the antimatter reaction create bremsstrahlung x-rays as they heat up the hydrogen.

You want as much as possible of the expensive antimatter energy turned into heated hydrogen, but at the same time you don't want more x-rays than your engine or crew can cope with. In the table, it does not list the thrust of the engine, instead it lists the "normalized" thrust.

For instance the high density engine has a normalized thrust of 8. Don't panic, let me explain. You see, the actual thrust depends upon the volume of the magnetic bottle and the engine pulse rate the delay between engine pulses.

This lets you scale the engine up or down, to make it just the right size. Say your magnetic bottle had a radius of 1 meter centimeters and a height of 10 meters centimeters. A pulse rate of 10 milliseconds is 0. The high density engine has a normalized thrust of 8.

What is the engine's thrust? The optimum performance for LaPointe's engine was at a hydrogen propellant density of 10 16 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeters, and an antiproton density between 10 10 and 10 12 antiprotons per cubic centimeter.

With an engine that can contain the reaction for 5 milliseconds 0. The thrust can be increased by increasing the hydrogen propellant density to 10 18 cm -3 , but then you start having problems with the hydrogen plasma radiatively cooling losing its thrust energy.

Assuming you can do that the engine will have a normalized thrust of 8. The superconducting magnetic coils will need not only radiation shielding from gamma rays created by the antimatter explosion, but also from the bremsstrahlung x-rays.

The radiation shield will need to be heavy to stop the radiation, and extra shielding be needed to cope with to surface ablation and degradation. The majority of the engine mass will be due to radiation shielding, which will severely reduce the acceleration drastically lowered thrust-to-weight ratio.

Antimatter fuel can be stored as levitated antihydrogen ice. By illuminating it with UV to drive off the positrons, a bit is electromagnetically extracted and sent to a magnetic bottle.

Each antiproton annihilates a proton or neutron in the nucleus of a heavy atom. The use of heavy metals helps to suppress neutral pion and gamma ray production by reabsorption within the fissioning nucleus.

If regolith is used instead of a heavy metal, the gamma flux is trebled requiring far more cooling. Compared to fusion, antimatter rockets need higher magnetic field strengths: After 7 ms, this field is relaxed to allow the plasma to escape at 6 keV and atm.

These high temperatures and pressures cause higher bremsstrahlung X-ray losses than fusion reactors. Furthermore, the antiproton reaction products are short-lived charged pions and muons, that must be exhausted quickly to prevent an increasing amount of reaction power lost to neutrinos.

About a third of the reaction energy is X-rays and neutrons stopped as heat in the shields partly recoverable in a Brayton cycle, another third escapes as neutrinos. Only the final third is charged fragments directly converted to thrust or electricity in a MHD nozzle.

For use in this game, to keep the radiator mass within reasonable bounds, I reduced the pulse rate from 60 Hz to 0. Instead you get some energy, some charged particles, and some uncharged particles.

The charged pions from the reaction are used directly as thrust, instead of being used to heat a propellant. A magnetic nozzle channels them. Without a technological break-through, this is a very low thrust propulsion system. All antimatter rockets produce dangerous amounts of gamma rays.

The gamma rays and the pions can transmute engine components into radioactive isotopes. The higher the mass of the element transmuted, the longer lived it is as a radioisotope. This engine produces thrust when thin layers of material in the nozzle are vaporized by positrons in tiny capsules surrounded by lead.

The capsules are shot into the nozzle compartment many times per second. Once in the nozzle compartment, the positrons are allowed to interact with the capsule, releasing gamma rays. The lead absorbs the gamma rays and radiates lower-energy X-rays, which vaporize the nozzle material.

This complication is necessary because X-rays are more efficiently absorbed by the nozzle material than gamma rays would be. This system is very similar to Antiproton-catalyzed microfission.

Similar to Solar Moth, but uses a stationary ground or space-station based laser instead of the sun. Basically the propulsion system leaves the power plant at home and relies upon a laser beam instead of an incredibly long extension cord.

As a rule of thumb, the collector mirror of a laser thermal rocket can be much smaller than a comparable solar moth, since the laser beam probably has a higher energy density than natural sunlight.

With the mass of the power plant not actually on the spacecraft, more mass is available for payload. Or the reduced mass makes for a higher mass ratio to increase the spacecraft's delta V.

The reduced mass also increases the acceleration. The drawback include the fact that there is a maximum effective range you can send a worthwhile laser beam from station to spacecraft, and the fact that the spacecraft is at the mercy of whoever is controlling the laser station.

Propellant is hydrogen seeded with alkali metal. As always the reason for seeding is that hydrogen is more or less transparent so the laser beam will mostly pass right through without heating the hydrogen.

The seeding make the hydrogen more opaque so the blasted stuff will heat up. Having said that, the Mirror Steamer has an alternate solution. The equations for delta V and mass ratio are slightly different for a Solar Moth or Laser Thermal rocket engine:.

A rocket can be driven by high-energy, short-duration sec laser pulses, focused on a solid propellant. A double-pulse system is used: A low Z propellant, such as graphite, obtains the best specific impulse 4 ksec.

Powered with a 60 MW beam, an ablative laser thruster has a thrust of 2. A Laser Sail is a photon sail beam-powered by a remote laser installation. As an important point, the practical minimum acceleration for a spacecraft is about 5 milligees.

Otherwise it will take years to change orbits. Photo sails can only do up to 3 milligees, but a laser sail can do 5 milligees easily. The concentrating mirror is one half of a giant inflatable balloon, the other half is transparent so it has an attractive low mass.

The advantage is that you have power as long as the sun shines and your power plant has zero mass as far as the spacecraft mass is concerned. The disadvantage is it doesn't work well past the orbit of Mars.

The figures in the table are for Earth orbit. The solar moth might be carried on a spacecraft as an emergency propulsion system, since the engine mass is so miniscule. In Earth's orbit, the density is 1.

Water is an attractive volumetric absorber for infrared laser propulsion. Diatomic species formed from the disassociation of water such as OH are present at temperatures as high as K, and can be rotationally excited by a free electron laser operating in the far infrared.

The OH molecules then transfer their energy to a stream of hydrogen propellant in a thermodynamic rocket nozzle by relaxation collisions. Beamed heat can also be added by a blackbody cavity absorber.

This heat exchanger is a series of concentric cylinders, made of hafnium carbide HfC. Focused sunlight or lasers passes through the outermost porous disk, and is absorbed in the cavity.

Heat is transferred to the propellant by the hot HfC without the need for propellant seeding. The specific impulse is materials-limited to 1 ks. Etheridge, Rockwell Space Systems Group. It would consist of a huge bubble of transparent polyester plastic.

The bubble could be some feet 90 m in diameter with a skin only a thousandth of an inch 0. It would be slightly ressurized to give it a spherical shape. Half the inside surface would he silvered to create a hemispherical mirror that would concentrate the sun's rays on a heating element.

In this element the hydrogen would be vaporized. Piped to directable nozzles, one at each side of the sphere, the gas would provide thrust for acceleration, braking and maneuvering. The crew's gondola and associated equipment including solar battery for auxiliary power would he supported by a framework in the center of the big sphere.

It should he remembered that a space ship uses power only during its initial acceleration. The vehicle coasts the rest of the trip. Nevertheless it should carry large reserves of propellant. Here the solar drive has real advantage.

Its heat-collecting device, the hemispherical mirror, weighs possibly pounds kg as compared to a much greater weight of oxidizer that would need to be carried in a comparable chemical rocket. This saving in weight permits additional hydrogen to be carried.

Solar drive provides low thrust as compared to the very high thrust of a chemical rocket. This is a good thing, for the fragile plastic bubble will tolerate only low accelerations. It will be necessary to remain under power for hours to achieve the acceleration obtained in minutes by a chemical power plant.

A barely contained chemical explosive. Noted for very high thrust and very low exhaust velocity. One of the few propulsion systems where the fuel and the propellant are the same thing. There is a list of chemical propellants here.

Methane and oxygen are burned resulting in an unremarkable specific impulse of about seconds. However, this is the highest performance of any chemical rocket using fuels that can be stored indefinitely in space.

Chemical rockets with superior specific impulse generally use liquid hydrogen, which will eventually leak away by escaping between the the molecules composing your fuel tanks. Liquid methane and liquid oxygen will stay put.

People tend to sneer at chemical rockets because of their abysmal specific impulse. Surprisingly, they are perfectly adequate for missions to Mars or cis-Lunar space provided there is a network of orbital propellant depots suppled by in-situ resource allocation.

See Sabatier reaction below. It contains two chambers, one for mixing and the other for storing a nickel catalyst. When charged with hydrogen and atmospheric carbon dioxide, it produces water and methane. The similar Bosch reactor uses an iron catalyst to produce elemental carbon and water.

A condenser separates the water vapor from the reaction products. This condenser is a simple pipe with outlets on the bottom to collect water; natural convection on the surface of the pipe is enough to carry out the necessary heat exchange.

Hydrogen and oxygen are burned resulting in close to the theoretical maximum specific impulse of about seconds. However, liquid hydrogen cannot be stored permanently in any tank composed of matter. The blasted stuff will escape atom by atom between the molecules composing the fuel tanks.

Even a single depot in Low Earth Orbit supplied from Lunar ice will be a big help. The combustion of the cryogenic fuels hydrogen and oxygen produces an ideal specific impulse of seconds. The product is water, which is exhausted through a converging-diverging tube called a De Laval nozzle.

The engine illustrated is similar to the Space Shuttle main engine, with a specific impulse of seconds. The De Laval nozzle has a The chamber temperature is K, and the chamber pressure is 2. A MW th chamber generates kN of thrust and a thrust to weight ratio of one gravity.

RP-1 is Rocket Propellant-1 or Refined Petroleum-1 is a highly refined form of kerosene outwardly similar to jet fuel, used as rocket fuel. It is not as powerful as liquid hydrogen but it is a whole lot less trouble.

Compared to LH 2 it is cheaper, stabler at room temperature, non-cryogenic less of an explosive hazard, and denser. Both are hypergolic, meaning the stuff explodes on contact with each other instead of needing a pilot light or other ignition system as do other chemical fuels.

This means one less point of failure and one less maintenance nightmare on your spacecraft. Being hypergolic also prevents large amounts of fuel and oxidizer accumulating in the nozzle, which can cause a hard start or engine catastrophic failure fancy term for "engine goes ka-blam!

It is also non-cryogenic, liquid at room temperature and pressure. This means it is a storable liquid propellant, suitable for space missions that last years. The catch is that the mix is hideously corrosive, toxic, and carcinogenic.

It is also easily absorbed through the skin. If UDMH escapes into the air it reacts to form dimethylnitrosamine, which is a persistent carcinogen and groundwater pollutant. MMH is only fractionally less bad. This is the reason for all those technicians wearing hazmat suits at Space Shuttle landings.

Upon landing the techs had to drain the hellish stuff before it leaked and dissoved some innocent bystander. Aluminum and oxygen are burned resulting in an unremarkable specific impulse of about seconds. However, this is of great interest to any future lunar colonies.

Both aluminum and oxygen are readily available in the lunar regolith, and such a rocket could easily perform lunar liftoff, lunar landing, or departure from a hypothetical L5 colony for Terra using a lunar swingby trajectory.

The low specific impulse is more than made up for by the fact that the fuel does not have to be imported from Terra. It can be used in a hybrid rocket with solid aluminum burning in liquid oxygen, or using ALICE which is a slurry of nanoaluminium powder mixed in water then frozen.

Of course the aluminum oxide in lunar regolith has to be split into aluminum and oxygen before you can use it as fuel. But Luna has plenty of solar power. As a rule of thumb, in space, energy is cheap but matter is expensive.

Although aluminum is common in space, it stubbornly resists refining from its oxide Al 3 O 2. It can be reduced by a solar carbothermal process, using carbon as the reducing agent and solar energy. Compared to carbo-chlorination, this process needs no chlorine, which is hard to obtain in space.

Furthermore, the use of solar heat instead of electrolysis allows higher efficiency and less power conditioning. The solar energy required is 0. The aluminum and oxygen produced can be used to fuel Al-O 2 chemical boosters, which burn fine sintered aluminum dust in the presence of liquid oxygen LO 2.

Unlike pure solid rockets, hybrid rockets using a solid fuel and liquid oxidizer can be throttled and restarted. The combustion of aluminum obtains 3. The mass ratio for boosting off or onto Luna using an Al-O 2 rocket is 2. In other words, over twice as much as much fuel as payload is needed.

Metal sulfates may be refined by exposing a mixture of the crushed ore and carbon dust to streams of chlorine gas. Under moderate resistojet heating K in titanium chambers Ti resists attack by Cl, the material is converted to chloride salts such as found in seawater, which can be extracted by electrolysis.

The example shown is the carbochlorination of Al 2 Cl 3 to form aluminum. Al is valuable in space for making wires and cables copper is rare in space. The electrolysis of Al 2 Cl 3 does not consume the electrodes nor does it require cryolite.

However, due to the low boiling point of Al 2 Cl 3 , the reaction must proceed under pressure and low temperatures. Other elements produced by carbochlorination include titanium, potassium, manganese, chromium, sodium, magnesium, silicon and also with the use of plastic filters the nuclear fuels U and Th.

Both C and Cl2 must be carefully recycled the recycling equipment dominates the system mass and replenished by regolith scavenging. Lunar and asteroidal surface materials are ubiquitous and abundant sources of metals like silicon, aluminum, magnesium, iron, calcium, and titanium.

Many schemes have been proposed for extracting these metals and oxygen for structural, electrical, and materials processing space operations. However, all the metals burn energetically in oxygen and could serve as in-situ rocket fuels for space transportation applications.

Table 1 lists the specific heats of combustion enthalpy at K and corresponding specific impluses at selected mixture ratios with oxygen of the above pure metals assuming rocket combustion at psia and an expansion ratio of Hydrogen is included for comparison.

All the metals appear to offer adequate propulsion performance from low or moderate gravity bodies and are far more abundant than hydrogen on many terrestrial planets and asteroids. It is noteworthy that silicon, the most abundant nonterrestrial metal, is potentially one of the best performers.

In addition, iron with the lowest specific impulse is sufficiently energetic for cislunar and asteroidal transportation. Further, silicon and iron are the most readily obtained nonterrestrial metals.

They can be separated by distillation of basalts and other nonterrestrial silicates in vacuum solar furnaces. Efficient rocket combustion of metal fuels could be realized by injecting them as a fine powder into the combustion chamber.

This could be done by mixing the fuel with an inert carrier gas or in liquid oxygen LOX to form a slurry. Lean fuel mixtures would be used to achieve the maximum specific impluse by reducing the exhaust molecular weight without excessivly lowering the combustion temperature.

Two phase flow losses are estimated to be acceptable for anticipated throat sizes based on measured thrust loss data from solid rocket motors ustng aluminized propellants. The metals could be atomized by condensing droplets in vacuum from a liquid metal stream forced through a fine ceramic nozzle.

Brittle metals like silicon and calcium might be pulverized to sub 20 micrometer size in vacuum in autogenous grinders that operate by centrifugal impact and are independent of the gravity level. Atomic hydrogen is also called free-radical hydrogen or "single-H".

The problem is that it instantly wants to recombine. Free radicals are single atoms of elements that normally form molecules. Free radical hydrogen H has half the molecular weight of H 2. Free radicals extracted by particle bombardment are cooled by VUV laser chirping, and trapped in a hybrid laser-magnet as a Bose-Einstein gas at ultracold temperatures.

A Pritchard-Ioffe trap keeps their mobile spins aligned, using the interaction of the atomic magnetic moment with the inhomogeous magnetic field. Free radical deuterium that has been spin-vector polarized is stable against ionization and atomic collisions.

Because of its large fusion reactivity cross-sectional area, it makes a useful fusion fuel. Most of the data here is from Metallic Hydrogen: Silvera and John W. Hydrogen H 2 subjected to enough pressure to turn it into metal mH, then contained under such pressure.

Release the pressure and out comes all the stored energy that was required to compress it in the first place. It will require storage that can handle millions of atmospheres worth of pressure. The mass of the storage unit might be enough to negate the advantage of the high exhaust velocity.

The hope is that somebody might figure out how to compress the stuff into metal, then somehow release the pressure and have it stay metallic. That is, if the pressure on metallic hydrogen were relaxed, it would still remain in the metallic phase, just as diamond is a metastable phase of carbon.

This will make it a powerful rocket fuel, as well as a candidate material for the construction of Thor's Hammer. Then that spoil-sport E. Salpeter wrote in "Evaporation of Cold Metallic Hydrogen" a prediction that quantum tunneling might make the stuff explode with no warning.

Since nobody has managed to make metallic hydrogen they cannot test it to find the answer. Silvera and Cole figure that metallic hydrogen is stable, to use it as rocket fuel you just have to heat it to about 1, K and it explodes recombines into hot molecular hydrogen.

Recombination of hydrogen from the metallic state would release a whopping megajoules per kilogram. TNT only releases 4. This would give metallic hydrogen an astronomical specific impulse I sp of 1, seconds. Yes, this means metallic hydrogen has more specific impulse than a freaking solid-core nuclear thermal rocket.

I sp of 1, seconds is big enough to build a single-stage-to-orbit heavy lift vehicle, which is the holy grail of boosters. The high density is a plus, since liquid hydrogen's annoyingly low density causes all sorts of problems.

Metallic hydrogen also probably does not need to be cryogenically cooled, unlike liquid hydrogen. Cryogenic cooling equipment cuts into your payload mass. The drawback is the metallic hydrogen reaction chamber will reach a blazing temperature of at least 6, K.

By way of comparison the temperatures in the Space Shuttle main engine combustion chamber can reach 3, K, which is about the limit of the state-of-the-art of preventing your engine from evaporating. It is possible to lower the combustion chamber temperature by injecting cold propellant like water or liquid hydrogen.

The good part is you can lower the temperature to 3, K so the engine doesn't melt. The bad part is this lowers the specific impulse nothing comes free in this world. But even with a lowered specific impulse the stuff is still revolutionary.

At atmospheres of pressure in the combustion chamber it will be an I sp of 1, sec with a temperature of 7, K. At 40 atmospheres the temperature will be 6, K, still way to high. Injecting enough water propellant to bring the temperature down to 3, to 3, K will lower the I sp to to seconds.

Doing the same with liquid hydrogen will lower the I sp to 1, to 1, seconds. Two electrons in a helium atom are aligned in a metastable state one electron each in the 1s and 2s atomic orbitals with both electrons having parallel spins, the so-called "triplet spin state", if you want the details.

When it reverts to normal state it releases 0. Making the stuff is easy. The trouble is that it tends to decay spontaneously, with a lifetime of a mere 2. And it will decay even quicker if something bangs on the fuel tank.

Or if the ship is jostled by hostile weapons fire. To say the fuel is touchy is putting it mildly. The fuel is stored in a resonant waveguide to magnetically lock the atoms in their metastable state but that doesn't help much.

There were some experiments to stablize it with circularly polarized light, but I have not found any results about that. Meta-helium would be such a worthwhile propulsion system that scientists have been trying real hard to get the stuff to stop decaying after a miserable 2.

One approach is to see if metastable helium can be formed into a room-temperature solid if bonded with diatomic helium molecules, made from one ground state atom and one excited state atom. This is called diatomic metastable helium.

The solid should be stable, and it can be ignited by heating it. Theoretically He IV-A would be stable for 8 years, have a density of 0. The density is a plus, liquid hydrogen's annoying low density causes all sorts of problems.

Robert Forward in his novel Saturn Rukh suggested bonding 64 metastable helium atoms to a single excited nitrogen atom, forming a stable super-molecule called Meta. Whether or not this is actually possible is anybody's guess.

In theory it would have a specific impulse of seconds. Metastable helium is the electronically excited state of the helium atom, easily formed by a 24 keV electron beam in liquid helium. Spin-aligned solid metastable helium could be a useful, if touchy, high thrust chemical fuel with a theoretical specific impulse of 3.

Electromagnetic ion thrusters use the Lorentz force to move the propellant ions. Helicon Double Layer Thruster. Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster, a travelling wave plasma accelerator. Propellant is potassium seeded helium.

Impulsive electric rockets can accelerate propellant using magnetoplasmadynamic traveling waves MPD T-waves. In the design shown, superfluid magnetic helium-3 is accelerated using a megahertz pulsed system, in which a few hundred kiloamps of currents briefly develop extremely high electromagnetic forces.

The accelerator sequentially trips a column of distributed superconducting L-C circuits that shoves out the fluid with a magnetic piston. The propellant is micrograms of regolith dust entrained by the superfluid helium.

Each J pulse requires a millifarad of total capacitance at a few hundred volts. Compared to ion drives, MPDs have good thrust densities and have no need for charge neutralization. However, they run hot and have electrodes that will erode over time.

Moreover, small amounts of an expensive superfluid medium are continually required. One of my mentors, Dr. Jones of the University of Arizona, has worked out the physics of this. A plasmoid rocket creates a torus of ball lightning by directing a mega-amp of current onto the propellant.

Almost any sort of propellant will work. The plasmoid is expanded down a diverging electrically conducting nozzle. Magnetic and thermal energies are converted to directed kinetic energy by the interaction of the plasmoid with the image currents it generates in the nozzle.

Unlike other electric rockets, a plasmoid thruster requires no electrodes which are susceptible to erosion and its power can be scaled up simply by increasing the pulse rate. The design illustrated has a meter diameter structure that does quadruple duty as a nozzle, laser focuser, high gain antenna, and radiator.

Laser power 60 MW is directed onto gap photovoltaics to charge the ultracapacitor bank used to generate the drive pulses. The variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket is a plasma drive with the amusing ability to "shift gears.

Three "gears" are shown on the table. There are more details here and here. A chemical rocket tug would require 60 metric tons of liquid oxygen - liquid hydrogen propellant. Granted the VASIMR tug would take six month transit time as opposed to the three days for the chemical, but there are always trade offs.

Propellant typically hydrogen, although many other volatiles can be used is first ionized by helicon waves and then transferred to a second magnetic chamber where it is accelerated to ten million degrees K by an oscillating electric and magnetic fields, also known as the ponderomotive force.

Franklin Chang-Diaz, et al. Electrostatic ion thrusters use the Coulomb force to move the propellant ions. When I was a little boy, the My First Big Book of Outer Space Rocketships type books I was constantly reading usually stated that ion drives would use mercury or cesium as propellant.

But most NASA spacecraft are using xenon. Ionization energy represents a large percentage of the energy needed to run ion drives. In addition, the propellant should not erode the thruster to any great degree to permit long life; and should not contaminate the vehicle.

Many current designs use xenon gas, as it is easy to ionize, has a reasonably high atomic number, is inert and causes low erosion. However, xenon is globally in short supply and expensive. Older designs used mercury, but this is toxic and expensive, tended to contaminate the vehicle with the metal and was difficult to feed accurately.

Other propellants, such as bismuth and iodine, show promise, particularly for gridless designs, such as Hall effect thrusters. Field-Emission Electric Propulsion typically use caesium or indium as the propellant due to their high atomic weights, low ionization potentials and low melting points.

Central City and the other bases that had been established with such labor were islands of life in an immense wilderness, oases in a silent desert of blazing light or inky darkness. There had been many who had asked whether the effort needed to survive here was worthwhile, since the colonization of Mars and Venus offered much greater opportunities.

But for all the problems it presented him, Man could not do without the Moon. It had been his first bridgehead in space, and was still the key to the planets. The liners that plied from world to world obtained all their propellent mass here, filling their great tanks with the finely divided dust which the ionic rockets would spit out in electrified jets.

By obtaining that dust from the Moon, and not having to lift it through the enormous gravity field of Earth, it had been possible to reduce the cost of spacetravel more than ten-fold. Indeed, without the Moon as a refueling base, economical space-flight could never have been achieved.

The spacecraft then will attempt to redirect the object into a stable orbit around the moon. Within that limited ARM context, a conservative engineering approach using an existing deep-space propulsion system e. Our interest in near Earth objects NEOs should be more expansive than one or a few missions, though.

This essay examines an alternative propulsion system with substantial promise for future space industrialization using asteroidal resources returned to HEO. Electrostatic propulsion is the method used by many deep space probes currently in operation such as the Dawn spacecraft presently wending its way towards the asteroid Ceres.

For that probe and several others, xenon gas is ionized and then electrical potential is used to accelerate the ions until they exit the engine at exhaust velocities of 15—50 kilometers per second, much higher than for chemical rocket engines, at which point the exhaust is electrically neutralized.

This method produces very low thrust and is not suitable for takeoff from planets or moons. However, in deep space and integrated over long periods of engine operation time, the gentle push of an ion engine can impart a very significant velocity change to a spacecraft, and do so extremely efficiently: The solar system has planets, asteroids, rocks, sand, and dust, all of which can pose dangers to space missions.

The larger objects can be detected in advance and avoided, but the very tiny objects cannot, and it is of interest to understand the effects of hypervelocity impacts of microparticles on spacesuits, instruments and structures.

For over a half century, researchers have been finding ways to accelerate microparticles to hypervelocities 1 to kilometers per second in vacuum chambers here on Earth, slamming those particles into various targets and then studying the resultant impact damage.

These microparticles are charged and then accelerated using an electrical potential field. It is a natural step to consider, instead of atomic-scale xenon ions, the application to deep space propulsion of the electrostatic acceleration of much, much larger microparticles:.

However, their high exhaust velocity is poorly matched to typical mission requirements and therefore, wastes energy. A better match would be intermediate between the two forms of propulsion.

This could be achieved by electrostatically accelerating solid powder grains. Several papers have researched such a possibility. There are many potential sources of powder or dust in the solar system with which to power such a propulsion system.

NEOs could be an ideal source, as hinted at in a presentation:. Asteroid sample return missions would benefit from development of an improved rocket engine… This could be achieved by electrostatically accelerating solid powder grains, raising the possibility that interplanetary material could be processed to use as reaction mass.

Imagine a vehicle that is accelerated to escape velocity by a conventional rocket. It then uses some powder lifted from Earth for deep-space propulsion to make its way to a NEO, where it lands, collects a large amount of already-fractured regolith, and then takes off again.

It is already known that larger NEOs such as Itokawa have extensive regolith blankets. Furthermore, recent research suggests that thermal fatigue is the driving force for regolith creation on NEOs ; if that is true, then even much smaller NEOs might have regolith layers.

Additionally, some classes of NEOs such as carbonaceous chondrites are expected to have extremely low mechanical strength; for such NEOs, it would be immaterial whether or not pre-existing regolith layers were present, as the crumbly material of the NEO could be crushed easily.

After leaving the NEO, onboard crushers and grinders convert small amounts of the regolith to very fine powder. These processes would be perfected in low Earth orbit using regolith simulant long before the first asteroid mission.

Electrostatic grids accelerate and expel the powder at high exit velocities. Not all of the regolith onboard is powdered, only that which is used as propellant: The Dawn spacecraft consumes about grams of xenon propellant per day.

For asteroid redirect missions, a much higher power spacecraft with greater propellant capacity than Dawn is needed, and NASA is considering one with kilowatt arrays and 12 metric tons of xenon ion propellant, versus just 0.

If that 12 metric tons were consumed over a four-year period, then that would equate to 8. The machinery required to collect, crush, and powder a similar mass of regolith per hour need not be extremely large because initial hard rock fracturing would not be required.

It is plausible that the entire system—regolith collection equipment, rock crushing, powdering, and other material processing equipment—might not be much larger than the 12 metric tons of xenon propellant envisioned by NASA.

One of the attractions of the scheme described here is that this system could be started with one or a few vehicles, and then later scaled to any desired throughput by adding vehicles. Suppose that, on average, a single vehicle could complete a round-trip and return tons of asteroidal material to HEO once every four years.

After arrival in HEO, maintenance is performed on the vehicle. Some of the remaining regolith is powdered and becomes propellant for the outbound leg of the next NEO mission. A fleet of ten such vehicles could return 1, tons per year on average of asteroidal material, while a fleet of such vehicles could return 10, tons per year.

The system described is scalable to any desired throughput by the addition of vehicles. Mass production of such vehicles would reduce unit costs. A system of many such vehicles would be resilient to the failure of any single one.

If one of the many vehicles were lost, then the throughput rate of return of asteroidal material to HEO would be reduced, but the system as a whole would survive. Replacement vehicles could be launched from Earth, or perhaps the failed vehicle could also be returned to HEO for repair by one of the other vehicles.

The scheme discussed in this essay would use powdered asteroidal regolith instead of xenon, and would save not only the material cost of the xenon ion propellant itself, but also the vastly larger cost of launching that propellant from Earth each time.

Over several or many missions, the initial cost of developing the powdered asteroid propulsion approach would justify itself economically. Over dozens or hundreds of missions, the asteroidal material returned to HEO could serve as radiation shielding, as a powder propellant source for all sorts of beyond-Earth-orbit missions and transportation in cislunar space, and as input fodder for many industrial and manufacturing processes, such as the production of oxygen or solar cells.

All of this advanced processing could be conducted in HEO, where a telecommunications round-trip of a second or two would allow most operations to be economically controlled from the surface of the Earth using telerobotics.

By contrast, the processing that happens outside of Earth orbit would be limited to the collection, crushing, and powdering of regolith. These latter and simpler processes would be completed largely autonomously.

Low Earth orbit LEO is reachable from the surface of the Earth in eight minutes, and geosynchronous orbit—the beginning of HEO—is reachable within eight hours. The proximity of LEO and HEO to the seven billion people on Earth and their associated economic activity is a strong indication that cislunar space will become the future economic home of humankind.

In the architecture described here, raw material is slowly delivered to HEO over time via a fleet of regolith-processing, electrostatically-propelled vehicles; by contrast, humans arrive quickly to HEO from Earth. This NEO-based ISRU architecture could be the foundation of massive economic growth off-planet, enabling the construction mostly from asteroidal materials of massive solar power stations, communications hubs, orbital hotels and habitats, and other facilities.

One of the ideas I had been thinking of blogging about was the thought of augmenting Enhanced Gravity Tractor EGT asteroid deflection with in-situ derived propellants. The gravitation attraction force is usually the bottleneck in how fast you can do an asteroid deflection, but in some situations the propellant load might matter too.

That would imply getting somewhere between 16x the thrust per unit time as running the same amount of power through the HET. One nice thing is that some of this material can be gathered while landing to gather the additional mass for the enhanced gravity tractor.

Field-emission electric propulsion, a type of Colloid thruster. They typically use caesium or indium as the propellant due to their high atomic weights, low ionization potentials and low melting points. This ion rocket accelerates ions using the electric potential maintained between a cylindrical anode and negatively charged plasma which forms the cathode.

To start the engine, the anode on the upstream end is charged to a positive potential by a power supply. Simultaneously, a hollow cathode at the downstream end generates electrons. As the electrons move upstream toward the anode, an electromagnetic field traps them into a circling ring at the downstream end.

This gyrating flow of electrons, called the Hall current, gives the Hall thruster its name. The Hall current collides with a stream of magnesium propellant, creating ions. As magnesium ions are generated, they experience the electric field between the anode positive and the ring of electrons negative and exit as an accelerated ion beam.

A significant portion of the energy required to run the Hall Effect thruster is used to ionize the propellant, creating frozen flow losses. On the plus side, the electrons in the Hall current keep the plasma substantially neutral, allowing far greater thrust densities than other ion drives.

Gridded Electrostatic Ion Thruster. Potassium seeded argon is ionized and the ions are accelerated electrostatically by electrodes. Other propellants can be used, such as cesium and buckyballs. Though it has admirably high exhaust velocity, there are theoretical limits that ensure all Ion drives are low thrust.

It also shares the same problem as the other electrically powered low-thrust drives. In the words of a NASA engineer the problem is "we can't make an extension cord long enough. Low powered ion drives can get by with solar power arrays, all ion drive space probes that exist in the real world use that system.

Researchers are looking into beamed power systems, where the ion drive on the spaceship is energized by a laser beam from a remote space station. And it suffers from the same critical thrust-limiting problem as any other ion engine: Which means that it has a net space charge which repels any additional ions trying to get in until the ones already under acceleration manage to get out, thus choking the propellant flow through the thruster.

The upper limit on thrust is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the acceleration region and the square of the voltage gradient across the acceleration region, and even the most optimistic plausible values i. You can only increase particle energy so much; you then start to get vacuum arcing across the acceleration chamber due to the enormous potential difference involved.

So you can't keep pumping up the voltage indefinitely. To get higher thrust, you need to throw more particles into the mix. The more you do this, the more it will reduce the energy delivered to each particle. The illustrated design uses a combination of microwaves and spinning magnets to ionize the propellant, eliminating the need for electrodes, which are susceptible to erosion in the ion stream.

The propellant is any metal that can be easily ionized and charge-separated. A suitable choice is magnesium, which is common in asteroids that were once part of the mantles of shattered parent bodies, and which volatilizes out of regolith at the relatively low temperature of K.

The ion drive accelerates magnesium ions using a negatively charged grid, and neutralizes them as they exit. The grids are made of C-C, to reduce erosion. Since the stream is composed of ions that are mutually repelling, the propellant flow is limited to low values proportional to the cross-sectional area of the acceleration region and the square root of the voltage gradient.

A 60 MWe system with a thrust of 1. Colloids charged sub-micron droplets of a conducting non-metallic fluid are more massive than ions, allowing increased thrust at the expense of fuel economy. This fictional ship is a species of Ion drive utilizing cadmium and powered by deuterium fusion.

Looking at its performance I suspect that in reality no Ion drive could have such a high thrust. The back of my envelope says that you'd need one thousand ultimate Ion drives to get this much thrust. A working fluid such as hydrogen can be heated to 12, K by an electric arc.

Since the temperatures imparted are not limited by the melting point of tungsten, as they are in a sold core electrothermal engine such as a resistojet, the arcjet can burn four times as hot.

However, the thoriated tungsten electrodes must be periodically replaced. When used for mining beneficiation, regolith or ore is initially processed with a 1 Tesla magnetic separator and impact grinder 3.

The arcjet can also be used for arc welding. This device works by generating microwaves in a cylindrical resonant, propellant-filled cavity, thereby inducing a plasma discharge through electromagnetic coupling. The discharge performs either mining or thrusting functions.

In its mining capacity, the head brings to bear focused energy, tuned at close quarters by the local microwave guides, to a variety of frequencies designed to resonate and shatter particular minerals or ice.

In its electrothermal thruster MET capacity, the microwave-sustained plasma superheats water, which is then thermodynamically expanded through a magnetic nozzle to create thrust. The MET needs no electrodes to produce the microwaves, which allows the use of water propellant the oxygen atoms in a steam discharge would quickly dissolve electrodes.

MET steamers can reach seconds of specific impulse due to the high K discharge source temperatures, augmented by rapid hydrogen-oxygen recombination in the nozzle. Vortex stabilization produces a well-defined axisymmetric flow.

The illustration shows a microwave plasma discharge created by tuning the TM mode for impedance-matched operation. Regenerative water cooling is used throughout. For pressures of 45 atm, each unit can produce 30 N of thrust.

The thrust array contains such units, at 50 kg each. You are just gonna waste your time However, I already found the working text file of working serial keys, and I guarantee it is working. So for you not to waste any time looking for it, i will share it here.

Please, i hope from all help me for research about registration key Proshow gold 5. I need id pleaseDeleteFabiana Bonvino8 September at. Preciso do serial do proshow producer 5. ReplyDeletekhaled romdhani27 April at. HI i need same serial of same version..

DeleteReplyArs4 June at. Your site is my favourite for ProShow Gold 6 Crack. ReplyDeleteAlona Tolentino22 July at. Please Keep it Up: Please post key for Proshow Gold 6. I Need Proshow producer 6.

Proshow producer 6 serial key is working Thanks for sharing such a good content: ReplyDeleteMoshe Traub17 September at. ReplyDeletesher bavedlshad28 January at. ReplyDeleteMeriven Marbebe6 March at. Could you please send them to me..

I need active key for Photodex Proshow Producer 5. Could I have the key for pro show gold 7. Sir please send me a registration key for proshow v6. This Blog is looking very awesome specially posts and conversation of knowledge impress me alot thank you.

I just stumbled upon your weblog and wished to say that I have truly enjoyed surfing around your blog posts. At best, you can only go together with what binary brokers will inform you and most of them won t give you any numbers.

You can add your photos, video and music with the help of proshow gold 6. Free serial proshow gold 7. Also, it permits users to add enticing effects and animations to photos and videos. ProShow License key contains on these handy features: David August at Yes..

ReplyDeleteRepliesprince of attitude28 January at please send another key for ps gold 5. Deleteparas patel2 June at need key of proshow gold version 6. Deletehassan emad19 February at if this one not working check others serial here November at Lora me Delete ReplyDeleteartikel25 April at thankyou verry muchReplyDeleteRepliesAnand baby7 September at plz tell me hw u wrote that key plzzz..

Mekadan14 September at i want proshow gold 0.

Before crack 3d copilot video element that

Therefore, using pins that attack without having to touch near your target makes this boss much easier. Vortex Saber M is the usual psych suggestion, but there are many that meet that description.

All There in the Manual: The Japanese manual includes things like the pins that your three partners use. Which explains things like how Joshua somehow uses his cell phone to drop soda machines on enemies although most fans have already made a justified assumption.

Furthermore, the manual even points out all of Neku's partners, making Neku's shocking expression after finding out he has to play through another game less surprising. It even goes so far as to tell the order in which you get Shiki, Joshua, and Beat.

This trope is also in effect in the game's universe via the Secret Reports, which act as a combination of Unreliable Narrator and Mr. They do at least explain the rules of the game and its universe before one final Mind Screw.

Since you have to complete a series of enigmatic quests, scour locations for certain items, and fight boss battles on "hard" difficulty or higher, getting the manual requires the right combination of ingenuity and combat skills, particularly since chapters will end if you trigger event flags before completing your missions.

There's a guide for that! Kariya fits the bill nicely, although he does very little work at all. Already Done for You: A few missions are partially completed by other Players, but only after you've done almost all of the work.

In "Another Day", some character alignments switch around and a few character tics are removed and replaced with new ones — gone are Higashizawa's food puns, now he acts like an overly flirty woman.

And begins each day praying to God in slang. And sleeps in the middle of the Scramble Crossing on purpose. American Kirby Is Hardcore: While the title change was due to legal issues, thus providing a reason for the use of the trope, The World Ends With You is quite a bit more "hardcore" than It's a Wonderful World.

The quote at the top of this page is the game's unifying theme. And Now for Someone Completely Different: Neku switching partners at the start of each week. You thought you were done so soon? And Then John Was a Zombie: After several days of battling Noise, Rhyme undergoes an Emergency Transformation and eventually manifests as one.

Downplayed in that the transformation only serves to introduce her as a Living MacGuffin, rather than invoking any Internal Conflict Tropes on her part. Of the three kinds of experience that your pins can get, one can only be gained by leaving your DS off for a significant period of time or by changing the date on your system, but that's cheating!

Other than experience for your pins, stat boosting food can only be consumed at a rate of 24 "bytes" per day you can eat items worth six bytes or less at any time, but they rarely give significant statistic boosts.

This can be circumvented by purchasing a specific item or by adjusting the internal clock of your DS. Some special Pig Noise enemies must be defeated in very idiosyncratic ways. Some require a specific pin to be erased, some must be beaten in under ten seconds, some must be beaten in a particular order, and one actually requires you to close your DS in order to be erased.

Arson, Murder, and Jaywalking: Reaper Sport 1 is Russian Roulette. Reaper Sport 2 is Hide-and-Seek. Ascend to a Higher Plane of Existence: Technically, this is what happens to all the Players upon entering the game.

The Secret Reports reveal that the Underground is on a slightly higher plane then the real world, meaning Players ascend to a higher plane upon death. To right the countless wrongs of our day, we shine this light of true redemption, that this place may become as paradise.

What a wonderful world such would be Your partners in the iOS version. Completion has to be its own reward, because you're not going to get the toys when they'd do you any good. It's possible to collect a significant number of items pins and items with ability unlocked before Another Day, thanks to strategy guides and combat grinding.

But no one would ever do that. The Bad Guy Wins: Joshua, the Composer of Shibuya, had decided that the city had become corrupt, and was planning to destroy it before it infected other regions.

Kitaniji's entire plot throughout the game was a challenge for the right to stop him. Thanks to Neku, Joshua beats Kitaniji and has free reign. But also thanks to Neku, Joshua changes his mind about Shibuya needing to be destroyed in the first place.

So even though the bad guy won, the good guys didn't lose. Mitsuki Konishi is pretty much the embodiment of the trope. Taboo Minamimoto, who gets crunched before you can actually fight to death. He comes back as Blue Noise during the postgame.

Possibly Uzuki and Kariya as well, depending on interpretation. The Battle Didn't Count: Taboo Minamimoto as well. Beat Them at Their Own Game: This is the goal of all Players and even Kitaniji, Minamimoto and Konishi, who are all plotting against the Composer for one reason or another.

However, only Kitaniji is formally held to this rule the way the Players are. On the note of Ken Doi in Another Day. Who told you that name? One was a god-like figure who wanted to destroy Shibuya because of its dire problems, and the other was trying to start an Assimilation Plot to convince him otherwise.

Well, only if you believe that Joshua didn't actually arrange things so that he'd lose from the beginning. It's just that kind of situation. In the short chapter Another Day the Big Bad initially appears to be Uzuki, who didn't really have a big role in the main story.

However, during the final confrontation Higashizawa, who had an even smaller part in the main story pulls a Starscream on her. Another Day Shiki, upon seeing her idol the Prince: Neku, when he is told that Shiki is his new entry fee.

One NPC's thoughts are completely in Japanese. It's something along the lines of his American friends wanting him to smuggle a samurai sword back with him—except he can't be understood because he speaks English and he has no idea where the hell to buy one.

In the Japanese version, his text was in English instead of Japanese, so it made more sense there. It's pointed out in the Secret Reports that even though Rhyme came back to life, life would be difficult for her without her entry fee.

This is mitigated, slightly, by the fact that her entry fee can be rebuilt, unlike others: What have they done to Neku?! And Shiki, Beat, and Rhyme? Higashizawa shows some shades of Boisterous Bruiser in Another Day.

His boss battle is also the most straightforward and fits this trope. The entirety of Another Day could count, considering the Noise found there surpass the ones found in the endgame, but if you want to be pickier, Another Day's Pork City definitely counts, with 13 floors of extremely hard Noise, a different brand requirement on each floor, annoying Pig Noise to kill, and a Bonus Boss at the top.

They appear as Blue Noise during the main game, are very powerful, have no part in the storyline and fighting them is completely optional. Although they pale in comparison to the game's true superboss, Panthera Cantus, aka Mr.

Reaper Beat and Taboo Minamimoto. You are required to fight them in the main story, but not defeat them: Or just for the sweet, sweet taste of victory. The basic Shockwave pin is basically just a fast melee attack.

It's also great for racking up long combos, and stunlocks enemies so you can down them fast enough to get the star rating for battles and the subsequent xp boost. In addition to Neku and his partner having lots of voice clips during battle, the Game Masters all have voice clips as well, usually to indicate they're about to use a certain attack.

They'll also make a snarky comment if you die. Kariya is the master of this in pre-battle scenes. The final boss theme Twister-Remix is not only a remix of Twister but incorporates riffs from various other tracks including Calling and Ooparts.

Solo Remix repurposes several remixes from the bonus soundtrack to serve as themes for specific battles. Boss in Mook Clothing: Hidden in Another Day. Played straight on subsequent playthroughts, if you choose — ultimate difficulty and a raised battle-chain cap allow you to fight sixteen battles featuring high-level noise.

You can have even more fun by combining the smaller battles with a boss fight. There are a few inverted crosses in CAT's graffiti; these were edited for the international release. Breaking the Fourth Wall: Kariya in the second manga chapter.

It's my job to screw with you. I'm up against an unnamed character? As part of the Assimilation Plot during the third week, all of the Reapers are brainwashed and will attack Neku and Beat on sight. Done so blatantly, via a literal invisible wall that the Reapers set up and refuse to let the Players pass until they do the task of their choosing.

Not only is this a straight use of the trope, it loops back around to brilliant. The engines are sorted by thrust power, since that depends on both exhaust velocity and thrust. So engines that high in both of those parameters will be towards the end of the list.

This is useful for designers trying to make spacecraft that can both blast-off from a planet's surface and do efficient orbital transfers. As Philip Eklund noted in his game High Frontier, the engines fall into three rough categories: If one was trying to design a more reasonable strictly orbit-to-orbit spacecraft one would want the engine list sorted by exhaust velocity.

And surface-to-orbit designers would want the list sorted by thrust. Sorry, you'll have to do that yourself. These are various rocket engines trying to harness the awesome might of antimatter.

While the fuel is about as potent as you can get, trying to actually use the stuff has many problems. Generally your spacecraft has metric tons of propellant, and a few micrograms antimatter fuel.

The exceptions are the antimatter beam-core and positron ablative engines. To those rocket engineers inured to the inevitable rise in vehicle mass ratio with increasing mission difficulty, antimatter rockets provide relief.

The mass ratio of an antimatter rocket for any mission is always less than 4. In an antimatter rocket, the source of the propulsion energy is separate from the reaction fluid. Thus, the rocket's total initial mass consists of the vehicle's empty mass, the reaction fluid's mass, and the energy source's mass, half of which is the mass of the antimatter.

The kinetic energy K. We set the derivative of Eq. The reaction mass m r is 3. If the antimatter engine has low efficiency, we will need more antimatter to heat the reaction mass to the best exhaust velocity. The amount of reaction mass needed remains constant.

If we can develop antimatter engines that can handle jets with the very high exhaust velocities Eq. We can obtain the amount of antimatter needed for a specific mission by substituting Eq.

The antimatter needed is just half of this mass. The amount of antimatter calculated from Eq. Thus, no matter what the mission, the vehicle uses 3. Depending on the relative cost of antimatter and reaction mass after they have been boosted into space, missions trying to lower costs may use more antimatter than that given by Eq.

If so, they would need less reaction mass to reach the same mission velocity. Such cost-optimized vehicles could have mass ratios closer to 2 than 4. The low mass ratio of antimatter rockets enables missions which are impossible using any other propulsion technique.

For example, a reusable antimatter-powered vehicle using a single-stage-to-orbit has been designed [Pecchioli, ] with a dry mass of This vehicle can put 2. Moving 5 tons of payload from low-Earth orbit to low Martian orbit with an ton vehicle mass ratio 3.

Antimatter rockets are a form of nuclear rocket. Although they do not emit many neutrons, they do emit large numbers of gamma rays and so require precautions concerning proper shielding and stand-off distance. From a practical standpoint, the proton-antiproton annihilation reaction produces two things: Electron-positron annihilation just produces propulsion-worthless gamma rays, so nobody uses it for rockets.

Except for the stranger antimatter engine designs. To use the energy for propulsion, you have to either somehow direct the gamma rays and pions to shoot out the exhaust nozzle to produce thrust, or you have to used them to heat up a propellant and direct the hot propellant out the exhaust nozzle.

To keep the crew and the computers alive you have to shield them from both gamma rays and pions. As far as the crew is concerned both reaction products come under the heading of "deadly radiation. Since pions are particles unlike gamma rays enough shielding will stop them all.

Given an absorbing propellant or radiation shield of a specific density you can figure the thickness that will stop all the pions. This is the pion's "range" through that material. In table the columns under the yellow bar show how many centimeters the "range" of the given stopping material is required to absorb MeV of pion energy.

The two sets of orange bars is because while the range is relatively constant for all high energies, the range becomes dramatically less at the point where the pion energy drops below MeV the "last MeV". But you only need 27 centimeters of water to absorb MeV from a 75 MeV pion.

Since hydrogen, helium, and nitrogen have regrettably low densities the reaction chamber will have to operate at high pressure to get the density up to useful levels. The Space Shuttle engines operated at a pressure of atmospheres, is a bit excessive.

So of the gases nitrogen might be preferrable, even though you can get better specific impulse out of propellants with lower molecular weight. Using more calculations that were not explained figure was produced.

The curve is the relative intensity of a charged pion at a given kinetic energy in MeV. The MeV pions are the most intense there are more of them, the average energy is MeV. Mean Life is the lifespan not half-life of a pion at that energy in nanoseconds.

The range of a pion at that energy can be measured on the RANGE scales below, traveling through vacuum, hydrogen H 2 propellant at atm, nitrogen N 2 propellant at atm, and tungsten radiation shielding. Sadly gamma rays cannot be used to propel the rocket well, actually there are a couple of strange designs that do use gammas, all they do is kill anything living and destroy electronic equipment.

So you have to shield the crew and electronics with radiation shielding. This is one of the big drawbacks to antimatter rockets. Gamma-rays would be useful if you were using antimatter as some sort of weapon instead of propulsion.

A small number of "prompt" gamma-rays are produced directly from the annihilation reaction. The prompt gammas have a whopping MeV, but they only contribute about 0. A much larger amount of "delayed" gamma-rays are produced by the neutral pions decaying 90 attoseconds after the antimatter reaction.

As mentioned above, the antimatter reaction is basically spitting out charged pions and gamma rays. The pions can be absorbed by the propellant and their energy utilized. The gamma rays on the other hand are just an inconvenient blast of deadly radiation traveling in all directions.

The only redeeming feature is gamma rays are not neutrons, so at least they don't infect the ship structure with neutron embrittlement and turn the ship radioactive with neutron activation.

Since gamma rays are rays, not particles, they have that pesky exponential attenuation with shielding. It is like Zemo's paradox of Achilles and the tortoise, making the radiation shielding thicker reduces the amount of gamma rays penetrating but no matter how thick it becomes the gamma leakage never quite goes to zero.

Particle shielding on the other hand have a thickness where nothing penetrates. Gamma rays with energies higher than MeV have a "attenuation coefficient" of about 0. Since tungsten has a density of Table gives the attunation for various thickness of tungsten radiation shields.

This tells us that a 2 centimeter thick shield would absorb The main things that have to be shielded are the crew, the electronics, the cryogenic tankage, and the magnetic coils if this particular antimatter engine utilzes coils.

The radiation flux will be pretty bad. Anyway the thrust power basically is the fraction of the antimatter annihilation energy that becomes charged pions. The coil coolant systems should be able to handle that.

The superconducting coils do not care about the biological dose since the coils are already dead. But you do not get something for nothing. The 10 centimeters of coil shield prevent the radiation from hitting the coils but it does not make the radiation magically disappear.

The coil shield will need a large heat radiator system capable of rejecting You will need more to shadow shield the living crew and sensitive electronics. Our antimatter gamma rays have an average energy of twice that, MeV not MeV.

Let's assume the crew habitat module is 10 meters away from the engine instead of 1 meter. Radiation falls of according to the inverse square law. Extrapolating further, a single MeV gamma ray photon has 3. This means a This is equal to 8.

Which is quite larger than 1 Curie. This is very very bad since a mere 80 sieverts is enough to instantly put a person into a coma with certain death following in less than 24 hours. The poor crew will get that dose in about half a second.

A shadow shield is indicated. Looking at table again, we see that 14 centimeters of tungsten has an attunation factor of 1. This will reduce the dose to 0. In the conceptual schematic, the reaction chamber is about 1 meter in diameter.

The pressure walls have an equivalent thickness of 2 centimeters of tungsten, absorbing most of the gamma rays and coverting them into heat. The pressure walls are cooled by hydrogen flowing through channels in the wall.

The hot hydrogen is sprayed as a film over the exhaust nozzle to protect it from the ultrahot hydrogen plasma blasting out from the antimatter reaction. As per the calculations above, the superconducting coils are shielded with 10 centimeters of tungsten, with the thermal shields aimed at the antimatter annihilation point.

Also as per the calculations above, the personnel will be protected by a shadow shield 14 centimeters thick and 0. This will provide a 10 meter diameter shadow at a distance of 10 meters from the engine, for the habitat module and other ship parts to shelter in.

The reaction chamber is 2, kilograms, each thermal shield ring is kilograms, and the shadow shield is kilograms. The gamma rays and pions are captured in the tungsten target, heating it. The tungsten target in turn heats the hydrogen.

Produces high thrust but the specific impulse is limited due to material constraints translation: The tungsten also acts as the biological shadow shield. According to Some Examples of Propulsion Applications Using Antimatter by Bruno Augenstein a tungsten block heated by antiprotons can heat hydrogen propellant up to a specific impulse of 1, to 1, seconds, depending up on the pressure the hydrogen operates at.

So even though this engine has a thrust-to-weight ratio higher than one, the citizens are going to protest if you get the bright idea of using this rocket to boost payloads into orbit. Because an accident is going to be quite spectactular.

Microscopic amounts of antimatter are injected into large amounts of water or hydrogen propellant. The intense reaction flashes the propellant into plasma, which exits through the exhaust nozzle. Magnetic fields constrain the charged pions from the reaction so they heat the propellant, but uncharged pions escape and do not contribute any heating.

Less efficient than AM-Solid core, but can achieve a higher specific impulse. For complicated reasons, a spacecraft optimized to use an antimatter propulsion system need never to have a mass ratio greater than 4. No matter what the required delta V, the spacecraft requires a maximum of 3.

Well, actually this is not true if the delta V required approaches the speed of light, but it works for normal interplanetary delta Vs. And the engine has to be able to handle the waste heat. Similar to antimatter gas core, but more antimatter is used, raising the propellant temperature to levels that convert it into plasma.

A magnetic bottle is required to contain the plasma. Refer to the report if you want the actual equations. The hydrogen propellant is injected radially across magnetic field lines and the antiprotons are injected axially along magnetic field lines.

The antimatter explodes, heating the propellant into plasma, for as long as the magnetic bottle can contain the explosion. After that, the magnetic mirror at one end is relaxed, forming a magnetic nozzle allowing the hot propellant plasma to exit.

The cycle repeats for each pulse. Remember that the hydrogen nucleus is a single proton, convenient to be annihilated by a fuel antiproton. The magnetic bottle contains the antiprotons, charged particles from the antimatter reaction, and the ionized hydrogen propellant.

Otherwise all of these would wreck the engine. The magnetic bottle is created by a solenoid coil, with the open ends capped by magnetic mirrors. At moderate to high densities the engine is a plasma core antimatter rocket.

Compared to beam-core, the plasma core has a lower exhaust velocity but a higher thrust. And of course it can shift gears to any desired combination even outside its range by adding cold hydrogen propellant to the plasma which is the standard method.

The reaction is confined to a magnetic bottle instead of a chamber constructed out of metal or other matter, because the energy of antimatter easily vaporizes matter. At moderate hydrogen densities there is a problem with the hydrogen sucking up every single bit of the thermal energy, lots of the charged particle reaction products escapes the hydrogen propellant without heating up hydrogen atoms.

This is a waste of expensive antimatter. At high hydrogen densities there is a problem with bremsstrahlung radiation. Charged particles from the antimatter reaction create bremsstrahlung x-rays as they heat up the hydrogen.

You want as much as possible of the expensive antimatter energy turned into heated hydrogen, but at the same time you don't want more x-rays than your engine or crew can cope with. In the table, it does not list the thrust of the engine, instead it lists the "normalized" thrust.

For instance the high density engine has a normalized thrust of 8. Don't panic, let me explain. You see, the actual thrust depends upon the volume of the magnetic bottle and the engine pulse rate the delay between engine pulses.

This lets you scale the engine up or down, to make it just the right size. Say your magnetic bottle had a radius of 1 meter centimeters and a height of 10 meters centimeters. A pulse rate of 10 milliseconds is 0.

The high density engine has a normalized thrust of 8. What is the engine's thrust? The optimum performance for LaPointe's engine was at a hydrogen propellant density of 10 16 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeters, and an antiproton density between 10 10 and 10 12 antiprotons per cubic centimeter.

With an engine that can contain the reaction for 5 milliseconds 0. The thrust can be increased by increasing the hydrogen propellant density to 10 18 cm -3 , but then you start having problems with the hydrogen plasma radiatively cooling losing its thrust energy.

Assuming you can do that the engine will have a normalized thrust of 8. The superconducting magnetic coils will need not only radiation shielding from gamma rays created by the antimatter explosion, but also from the bremsstrahlung x-rays.

The radiation shield will need to be heavy to stop the radiation, and extra shielding be needed to cope with to surface ablation and degradation. The majority of the engine mass will be due to radiation shielding, which will severely reduce the acceleration drastically lowered thrust-to-weight ratio.

Antimatter fuel can be stored as levitated antihydrogen ice. By illuminating it with UV to drive off the positrons, a bit is electromagnetically extracted and sent to a magnetic bottle. Each antiproton annihilates a proton or neutron in the nucleus of a heavy atom.

The use of heavy metals helps to suppress neutral pion and gamma ray production by reabsorption within the fissioning nucleus. If regolith is used instead of a heavy metal, the gamma flux is trebled requiring far more cooling.

Compared to fusion, antimatter rockets need higher magnetic field strengths: After 7 ms, this field is relaxed to allow the plasma to escape at 6 keV and atm. These high temperatures and pressures cause higher bremsstrahlung X-ray losses than fusion reactors.

Furthermore, the antiproton reaction products are short-lived charged pions and muons, that must be exhausted quickly to prevent an increasing amount of reaction power lost to neutrinos. About a third of the reaction energy is X-rays and neutrons stopped as heat in the shields partly recoverable in a Brayton cycle, another third escapes as neutrinos.

Only the final third is charged fragments directly converted to thrust or electricity in a MHD nozzle. For use in this game, to keep the radiator mass within reasonable bounds, I reduced the pulse rate from 60 Hz to 0.

Instead you get some energy, some charged particles, and some uncharged particles. The charged pions from the reaction are used directly as thrust, instead of being used to heat a propellant. A magnetic nozzle channels them.

Without a technological break-through, this is a very low thrust propulsion system. All antimatter rockets produce dangerous amounts of gamma rays. The gamma rays and the pions can transmute engine components into radioactive isotopes.

The higher the mass of the element transmuted, the longer lived it is as a radioisotope. This engine produces thrust when thin layers of material in the nozzle are vaporized by positrons in tiny capsules surrounded by lead.

The capsules are shot into the nozzle compartment many times per second. Once in the nozzle compartment, the positrons are allowed to interact with the capsule, releasing gamma rays. The lead absorbs the gamma rays and radiates lower-energy X-rays, which vaporize the nozzle material.

This complication is necessary because X-rays are more efficiently absorbed by the nozzle material than gamma rays would be. This system is very similar to Antiproton-catalyzed microfission.

Similar to Solar Moth, but uses a stationary ground or space-station based laser instead of the sun. Basically the propulsion system leaves the power plant at home and relies upon a laser beam instead of an incredibly long extension cord.

As a rule of thumb, the collector mirror of a laser thermal rocket can be much smaller than a comparable solar moth, since the laser beam probably has a higher energy density than natural sunlight.

With the mass of the power plant not actually on the spacecraft, more mass is available for payload. Or the reduced mass makes for a higher mass ratio to increase the spacecraft's delta V.

The reduced mass also increases the acceleration. The drawback include the fact that there is a maximum effective range you can send a worthwhile laser beam from station to spacecraft, and the fact that the spacecraft is at the mercy of whoever is controlling the laser station.

Propellant is hydrogen seeded with alkali metal. As always the reason for seeding is that hydrogen is more or less transparent so the laser beam will mostly pass right through without heating the hydrogen.

The seeding make the hydrogen more opaque so the blasted stuff will heat up. Having said that, the Mirror Steamer has an alternate solution. The equations for delta V and mass ratio are slightly different for a Solar Moth or Laser Thermal rocket engine:.

A rocket can be driven by high-energy, short-duration sec laser pulses, focused on a solid propellant. A double-pulse system is used: A low Z propellant, such as graphite, obtains the best specific impulse 4 ksec. Powered with a 60 MW beam, an ablative laser thruster has a thrust of 2.

A Laser Sail is a photon sail beam-powered by a remote laser installation. As an important point, the practical minimum acceleration for a spacecraft is about 5 milligees. Otherwise it will take years to change orbits.

Photo sails can only do up to 3 milligees, but a laser sail can do 5 milligees easily. The concentrating mirror is one half of a giant inflatable balloon, the other half is transparent so it has an attractive low mass. The advantage is that you have power as long as the sun shines and your power plant has zero mass as far as the spacecraft mass is concerned.

The disadvantage is it doesn't work well past the orbit of Mars. The figures in the table are for Earth orbit. The solar moth might be carried on a spacecraft as an emergency propulsion system, since the engine mass is so miniscule.

In Earth's orbit, the density is 1. Water is an attractive volumetric absorber for infrared laser propulsion. Diatomic species formed from the disassociation of water such as OH are present at temperatures as high as K, and can be rotationally excited by a free electron laser operating in the far infrared.

The OH molecules then transfer their energy to a stream of hydrogen propellant in a thermodynamic rocket nozzle by relaxation collisions. Beamed heat can also be added by a blackbody cavity absorber. This heat exchanger is a series of concentric cylinders, made of hafnium carbide HfC.

Focused sunlight or lasers passes through the outermost porous disk, and is absorbed in the cavity. Heat is transferred to the propellant by the hot HfC without the need for propellant seeding.

The specific impulse is materials-limited to 1 ks. Etheridge, Rockwell Space Systems Group. It would consist of a huge bubble of transparent polyester plastic. The bubble could be some feet 90 m in diameter with a skin only a thousandth of an inch 0.

It would be slightly ressurized to give it a spherical shape. Half the inside surface would he silvered to create a hemispherical mirror that would concentrate the sun's rays on a heating element.

In this element the hydrogen would be vaporized. Piped to directable nozzles, one at each side of the sphere, the gas would provide thrust for acceleration, braking and maneuvering. The crew's gondola and associated equipment including solar battery for auxiliary power would he supported by a framework in the center of the big sphere.

It should he remembered that a space ship uses power only during its initial acceleration. The vehicle coasts the rest of the trip. Nevertheless it should carry large reserves of propellant. Here the solar drive has real advantage.

Its heat-collecting device, the hemispherical mirror, weighs possibly pounds kg as compared to a much greater weight of oxidizer that would need to be carried in a comparable chemical rocket. This saving in weight permits additional hydrogen to be carried.

Solar drive provides low thrust as compared to the very high thrust of a chemical rocket. This is a good thing, for the fragile plastic bubble will tolerate only low accelerations. It will be necessary to remain under power for hours to achieve the acceleration obtained in minutes by a chemical power plant.

A barely contained chemical explosive. Noted for very high thrust and very low exhaust velocity. One of the few propulsion systems where the fuel and the propellant are the same thing. There is a list of chemical propellants here.

Methane and oxygen are burned resulting in an unremarkable specific impulse of about seconds. However, this is the highest performance of any chemical rocket using fuels that can be stored indefinitely in space.

Chemical rockets with superior specific impulse generally use liquid hydrogen, which will eventually leak away by escaping between the the molecules composing your fuel tanks. Liquid methane and liquid oxygen will stay put.

People tend to sneer at chemical rockets because of their abysmal specific impulse. Surprisingly, they are perfectly adequate for missions to Mars or cis-Lunar space provided there is a network of orbital propellant depots suppled by in-situ resource allocation.

See Sabatier reaction below. It contains two chambers, one for mixing and the other for storing a nickel catalyst. When charged with hydrogen and atmospheric carbon dioxide, it produces water and methane. The similar Bosch reactor uses an iron catalyst to produce elemental carbon and water.

A condenser separates the water vapor from the reaction products. This condenser is a simple pipe with outlets on the bottom to collect water; natural convection on the surface of the pipe is enough to carry out the necessary heat exchange.

Hydrogen and oxygen are burned resulting in close to the theoretical maximum specific impulse of about seconds. However, liquid hydrogen cannot be stored permanently in any tank composed of matter. The blasted stuff will escape atom by atom between the molecules composing the fuel tanks.

Even a single depot in Low Earth Orbit supplied from Lunar ice will be a big help. The combustion of the cryogenic fuels hydrogen and oxygen produces an ideal specific impulse of seconds. The product is water, which is exhausted through a converging-diverging tube called a De Laval nozzle.

The engine illustrated is similar to the Space Shuttle main engine, with a specific impulse of seconds. The De Laval nozzle has a The chamber temperature is K, and the chamber pressure is 2.

A MW th chamber generates kN of thrust and a thrust to weight ratio of one gravity. RP-1 is Rocket Propellant-1 or Refined Petroleum-1 is a highly refined form of kerosene outwardly similar to jet fuel, used as rocket fuel.

It is not as powerful as liquid hydrogen but it is a whole lot less trouble. Compared to LH 2 it is cheaper, stabler at room temperature, non-cryogenic less of an explosive hazard, and denser. Both are hypergolic, meaning the stuff explodes on contact with each other instead of needing a pilot light or other ignition system as do other chemical fuels.

This means one less point of failure and one less maintenance nightmare on your spacecraft. Being hypergolic also prevents large amounts of fuel and oxidizer accumulating in the nozzle, which can cause a hard start or engine catastrophic failure fancy term for "engine goes ka-blam!

It is also non-cryogenic, liquid at room temperature and pressure. This means it is a storable liquid propellant, suitable for space missions that last years. The catch is that the mix is hideously corrosive, toxic, and carcinogenic.

It is also easily absorbed through the skin. If UDMH escapes into the air it reacts to form dimethylnitrosamine, which is a persistent carcinogen and groundwater pollutant. MMH is only fractionally less bad. This is the reason for all those technicians wearing hazmat suits at Space Shuttle landings.

Upon landing the techs had to drain the hellish stuff before it leaked and dissoved some innocent bystander. Aluminum and oxygen are burned resulting in an unremarkable specific impulse of about seconds. However, this is of great interest to any future lunar colonies.

Both aluminum and oxygen are readily available in the lunar regolith, and such a rocket could easily perform lunar liftoff, lunar landing, or departure from a hypothetical L5 colony for Terra using a lunar swingby trajectory.

The low specific impulse is more than made up for by the fact that the fuel does not have to be imported from Terra. It can be used in a hybrid rocket with solid aluminum burning in liquid oxygen, or using ALICE which is a slurry of nanoaluminium powder mixed in water then frozen.

Of course the aluminum oxide in lunar regolith has to be split into aluminum and oxygen before you can use it as fuel. But Luna has plenty of solar power. As a rule of thumb, in space, energy is cheap but matter is expensive.

Although aluminum is common in space, it stubbornly resists refining from its oxide Al 3 O 2. It can be reduced by a solar carbothermal process, using carbon as the reducing agent and solar energy. Compared to carbo-chlorination, this process needs no chlorine, which is hard to obtain in space.

Furthermore, the use of solar heat instead of electrolysis allows higher efficiency and less power conditioning. The solar energy required is 0. The aluminum and oxygen produced can be used to fuel Al-O 2 chemical boosters, which burn fine sintered aluminum dust in the presence of liquid oxygen LO 2.

Unlike pure solid rockets, hybrid rockets using a solid fuel and liquid oxidizer can be throttled and restarted. The combustion of aluminum obtains 3. The mass ratio for boosting off or onto Luna using an Al-O 2 rocket is 2.

In other words, over twice as much as much fuel as payload is needed. Metal sulfates may be refined by exposing a mixture of the crushed ore and carbon dust to streams of chlorine gas. Under moderate resistojet heating K in titanium chambers Ti resists attack by Cl, the material is converted to chloride salts such as found in seawater, which can be extracted by electrolysis.

The example shown is the carbochlorination of Al 2 Cl 3 to form aluminum. Al is valuable in space for making wires and cables copper is rare in space. The electrolysis of Al 2 Cl 3 does not consume the electrodes nor does it require cryolite.

However, due to the low boiling point of Al 2 Cl 3 , the reaction must proceed under pressure and low temperatures. Other elements produced by carbochlorination include titanium, potassium, manganese, chromium, sodium, magnesium, silicon and also with the use of plastic filters the nuclear fuels U and Th.

Both C and Cl2 must be carefully recycled the recycling equipment dominates the system mass and replenished by regolith scavenging. Lunar and asteroidal surface materials are ubiquitous and abundant sources of metals like silicon, aluminum, magnesium, iron, calcium, and titanium.

Many schemes have been proposed for extracting these metals and oxygen for structural, electrical, and materials processing space operations. However, all the metals burn energetically in oxygen and could serve as in-situ rocket fuels for space transportation applications.

Table 1 lists the specific heats of combustion enthalpy at K and corresponding specific impluses at selected mixture ratios with oxygen of the above pure metals assuming rocket combustion at psia and an expansion ratio of Hydrogen is included for comparison.

All the metals appear to offer adequate propulsion performance from low or moderate gravity bodies and are far more abundant than hydrogen on many terrestrial planets and asteroids. It is noteworthy that silicon, the most abundant nonterrestrial metal, is potentially one of the best performers.

In addition, iron with the lowest specific impulse is sufficiently energetic for cislunar and asteroidal transportation. Further, silicon and iron are the most readily obtained nonterrestrial metals. They can be separated by distillation of basalts and other nonterrestrial silicates in vacuum solar furnaces.

Efficient rocket combustion of metal fuels could be realized by injecting them as a fine powder into the combustion chamber. This could be done by mixing the fuel with an inert carrier gas or in liquid oxygen LOX to form a slurry.

Lean fuel mixtures would be used to achieve the maximum specific impluse by reducing the exhaust molecular weight without excessivly lowering the combustion temperature. Two phase flow losses are estimated to be acceptable for anticipated throat sizes based on measured thrust loss data from solid rocket motors ustng aluminized propellants.

The metals could be atomized by condensing droplets in vacuum from a liquid metal stream forced through a fine ceramic nozzle. Brittle metals like silicon and calcium might be pulverized to sub 20 micrometer size in vacuum in autogenous grinders that operate by centrifugal impact and are independent of the gravity level.

Atomic hydrogen is also called free-radical hydrogen or "single-H". The problem is that it instantly wants to recombine. Free radicals are single atoms of elements that normally form molecules.

Free radical hydrogen H has half the molecular weight of H 2. Free radicals extracted by particle bombardment are cooled by VUV laser chirping, and trapped in a hybrid laser-magnet as a Bose-Einstein gas at ultracold temperatures.

A Pritchard-Ioffe trap keeps their mobile spins aligned, using the interaction of the atomic magnetic moment with the inhomogeous magnetic field. Free radical deuterium that has been spin-vector polarized is stable against ionization and atomic collisions.

Because of its large fusion reactivity cross-sectional area, it makes a useful fusion fuel. ProShow Gold serial key makes instant shows with photos, videos on PC for a user. Its output is easily customizable. Meanwhile, it is comfortable to share creation online on Twitter and Facebook.

Download Proshow Gold 5. After our trial and test, the software is proved to be official, secure and free. ProShow gold v 4. BE - Content sharing resource for everyone. Submit your stuff too. If you have any complaint on ProShow gold.

ReplyDeleteRepliesprince of attitude28 January at. I tried the serials given above and they are not working. You are just gonna waste your time However, I already found the working text file of working serial keys, and I guarantee it is working.

So for you not to waste any time looking for it, i will share it here. Please, i hope from all help me for research about registration key Proshow gold 5. I need id pleaseDeleteFabiana Bonvino8 September at.

Preciso do serial do proshow producer 5. ReplyDeletekhaled romdhani27 April at. HI i need same serial of same version.. DeleteReplyArs4 June at. Your site is my favourite for ProShow Gold 6 Crack. ReplyDeleteAlona Tolentino22 July at.

Please Keep it Up: Please post key for Proshow Gold 6.

Reaper Sport 1 is Russian Roulette. Reaper Sport 2 is Hide-and-Seek. Ascend to a Higher Plane of Existence: Technically, this is what happens to all the Players upon entering the game.

The Secret Reports reveal that the Underground is on a slightly higher plane then the real world, meaning Players ascend to a higher plane upon death. To right the countless wrongs of our day, we shine this light of true redemption, that this place may become as paradise.

What a wonderful world such would be Your partners in the iOS version. Completion has to be its own reward, because you're not going to get the toys when they'd do you any good. It's possible to collect a significant number of items pins and items with ability unlocked before Another Day, thanks to strategy guides and combat grinding.

But no one would ever do that. The Bad Guy Wins: Joshua, the Composer of Shibuya, had decided that the city had become corrupt, and was planning to destroy it before it infected other regions. Kitaniji's entire plot throughout the game was a challenge for the right to stop him.

Thanks to Neku, Joshua beats Kitaniji and has free reign. But also thanks to Neku, Joshua changes his mind about Shibuya needing to be destroyed in the first place. So even though the bad guy won, the good guys didn't lose.

Mitsuki Konishi is pretty much the embodiment of the trope. Taboo Minamimoto, who gets crunched before you can actually fight to death. He comes back as Blue Noise during the postgame. Possibly Uzuki and Kariya as well, depending on interpretation.

The Battle Didn't Count: Taboo Minamimoto as well. Beat Them at Their Own Game: This is the goal of all Players and even Kitaniji, Minamimoto and Konishi, who are all plotting against the Composer for one reason or another.

However, only Kitaniji is formally held to this rule the way the Players are. On the note of Ken Doi in Another Day. Who told you that name? One was a god-like figure who wanted to destroy Shibuya because of its dire problems, and the other was trying to start an Assimilation Plot to convince him otherwise.

Well, only if you believe that Joshua didn't actually arrange things so that he'd lose from the beginning. It's just that kind of situation. In the short chapter Another Day the Big Bad initially appears to be Uzuki, who didn't really have a big role in the main story.

However, during the final confrontation Higashizawa, who had an even smaller part in the main story pulls a Starscream on her. Another Day Shiki, upon seeing her idol the Prince: Neku, when he is told that Shiki is his new entry fee.

One NPC's thoughts are completely in Japanese. It's something along the lines of his American friends wanting him to smuggle a samurai sword back with him—except he can't be understood because he speaks English and he has no idea where the hell to buy one.

In the Japanese version, his text was in English instead of Japanese, so it made more sense there. It's pointed out in the Secret Reports that even though Rhyme came back to life, life would be difficult for her without her entry fee.

This is mitigated, slightly, by the fact that her entry fee can be rebuilt, unlike others: What have they done to Neku?! And Shiki, Beat, and Rhyme? Higashizawa shows some shades of Boisterous Bruiser in Another Day. His boss battle is also the most straightforward and fits this trope.

The entirety of Another Day could count, considering the Noise found there surpass the ones found in the endgame, but if you want to be pickier, Another Day's Pork City definitely counts, with 13 floors of extremely hard Noise, a different brand requirement on each floor, annoying Pig Noise to kill, and a Bonus Boss at the top.

They appear as Blue Noise during the main game, are very powerful, have no part in the storyline and fighting them is completely optional. Although they pale in comparison to the game's true superboss, Panthera Cantus, aka Mr.

Reaper Beat and Taboo Minamimoto. You are required to fight them in the main story, but not defeat them: Or just for the sweet, sweet taste of victory. The basic Shockwave pin is basically just a fast melee attack.

It's also great for racking up long combos, and stunlocks enemies so you can down them fast enough to get the star rating for battles and the subsequent xp boost. In addition to Neku and his partner having lots of voice clips during battle, the Game Masters all have voice clips as well, usually to indicate they're about to use a certain attack.

They'll also make a snarky comment if you die. Kariya is the master of this in pre-battle scenes. The final boss theme Twister-Remix is not only a remix of Twister but incorporates riffs from various other tracks including Calling and Ooparts.

Solo Remix repurposes several remixes from the bonus soundtrack to serve as themes for specific battles. Boss in Mook Clothing: Hidden in Another Day. Played straight on subsequent playthroughts, if you choose — ultimate difficulty and a raised battle-chain cap allow you to fight sixteen battles featuring high-level noise.

You can have even more fun by combining the smaller battles with a boss fight. There are a few inverted crosses in CAT's graffiti; these were edited for the international release. Breaking the Fourth Wall: Kariya in the second manga chapter.

It's my job to screw with you. I'm up against an unnamed character? As part of the Assimilation Plot during the third week, all of the Reapers are brainwashed and will attack Neku and Beat on sight. Done so blatantly, via a literal invisible wall that the Reapers set up and refuse to let the Players pass until they do the task of their choosing.

Not only is this a straight use of the trope, it loops back around to brilliant. Later bosses will create ridiculous amounts of projectiles for you to dodge. For one boss, understanding how to fight the noise created is central to advancing to the next stage of the fight.

He's a math fetishist who spends much of his time either lazying around or building piles of junk, and during his time as GM, he doesn't even issue missions some days. Despite this, his player erasure rate is impeccable and he's a high-ranking Reaper and GM.

He betrays just about everybody in the end, but damn, does he excel at it. His twisted genius didn't have him thinking up any way to cover up the fact that he was up to something, though. However, that can be covered by the fact that he's always up to something, and he's so eccentric that anything out-of-the ordinary would be ordinary for him.

One of the secret reports says as much. At one point Neku encounters three event battles. Two of them can be skipped, but the third one is mandatory — if you try to skip it, Neku will change his mind and rush in to save Sota anyway.

Also, when Kitaniji asks Neku to help him build a new Shibuya, even if you remember the earlier Chekhov's Gun and decide to play along, all it does is yield two lines of extra dialogue before Neku refuses. There are certain commands that are routine for pin types same attack, different brand, so if you're up to six slots and have forgotten what to do while your first pins reboot Some fights come down to how quickly you can spam your opponent with attacks before they're able to start damaging you.

Call a Rabbit a "Smeerp": Averted with things like frogs, wolves, and pigs. Played straight with the popguins and corehogs. Cannot Spit It Out: When Neku finds out that Joshua killed him, it takes an entire frustrating day before he confronts Joshua about it.

Joshua himself seems to fall into this trope when he doesn't tell Neku that he didn't kill him as Neku discovers at the end of week Justified in canon, however, as we can see Neku's thoughts.

Not only is Neku not entirely certain of his claim, Joshua is his partner and Neku needs him to win the game and save Shiki. Neku waits until Joshua is at a psychological disadvantage and he has more evidence. Can Only Move the Eyes: During cutscenes, when the characters are paralyzed, they usually scream something about how they can't move.

Somewhat justified in that they're sprites, and if they didn't say so, we'd have no way of knowing they've been paralyzed. On a similar note, the cutscene sprites used for minor characters like Shooter vary only by their facial expressions.

Neku outright calls Joshua this at one point. Any time a character notes the obvious, he's thinking something similar. Sho's "So zetta slow! Minamimoto's and Konishi's and Hanekoma 's Noise forms, oh my.

Any of the pins with "press" touch commands, though especially the Massive Hit psychs. Near the very beginning of the game, Neku and Shiki have a conversation and Shiki notices that Neku has two Player Pins.

Then, at the very end of the game, just before the Final Boss, Neku manages to avoid being sucked into Megumi's mind control scheme because he has a second one. In the same vein, the Red Skull pin is eventually revealed to trigger the Assimilation Plot.

The secret items you have to get on your second playthrough to complete the Secret Reports are all mentioned in stray thoughts by passerby even during your first playthrough. Now you understand why that guy was rambling about a samurai wig Heck, there's even a callback to Neku's dash maneuver.

It's the first thing you learn, and you are immune to damage at the start of the attack. Then, Neku uses it at the very end of the game, in a cutscene, to get the Red Skull pin off of Shiki.

Players in the game have to make a pact to fight Noise in two different zones or they are unable to attack it, leading to quick erasure. Also, if one member of the pair dies, the remaining one has 7 minutes to make a pact with another player or die.

Neku has an unfortunate tendency to make a pact with someone he can't stand. Remember that Reaper with the black hoodie who gave you instructions for Tin Pin Slammer? Right before Shiki forms a pact with Neku, look at the crowd in front of the dog statue, Hachiko.

Joshua is standing right next to Neku. He's no longer there after Shiki and Neku form a pact and fight. Neku actually runs past all three of his future partners during his initial panicked dash set to the Surreal Theme Tune.

And during one early mission, you see Sota and Nao a few days before they enter the next Game. Mina and Ai appear in the street one day before a mission is centered around them, as does Makoto. The Tin Pin tournament is randomly mentioned by Makoto and Shooter and Yammer a week before it becomes relevant to Neku.

The Game Masters, fought at the end of each week. The numbered day of the week is specified at the beginning of each chapter, but a second splash page with the actual chapter title is shown at each chapter's end.

The titles are painful. In-universe, Joshua claims that this happens whenever The Prince mentions something on his blog. This is most likely why Shadow Ramen is so popular the day it takes central stage. This is also a gameplay mechanic; Fighting battles with branded pins equipped makes those respective brands more popular in your given area.

If a given brand makes the popularity chart's Top 3, all of that brand's pins are given a boost in power in that area. Color-Coded for Your Convenience: The Reapers, who are either wearing a bright red jacket or a black sweatshirt.

Those in red jackets are easier to please but the walls they're guarding are the ones you have to clear to advance; those in black sweatshirts tend to guard walls that aren't required for the main storyline although you may need to move past them to complete the secret missions and issue the Reaper Review.

The latter group appears to be slightly stronger than the first and will attack you during the third week. All items in your inventory — food, clothes, etc. This is immensely useful when you're required to make a certain brand popular.

The QUEST items come with a blue you can make as many of them as you want, given you can find the required materials or red you can only get one border. Noise is color-coded, which is taught to you in-game. Red noise is "regular" noise, yellow is negative noise that has to be cleared from a person, noise with a "background" color is Taboo, blue is a boss, and green is pig noise.

Red noise symbols and, later, Taboo ones are the most common forms. Shapes generally indicate what you'll be expected to battle, but it varies based on which day of the game you're playing and difficulty level — so the same symbol can represent the jellyfish sequence and kangaroos.

Enamel Pumps, a piece of equipment that when equipped will help you resist knock-back. One of the Jellyfish Noise actually uses this as an attack. Justified, as the Reapers actually love throwing arbitrary restrictions your way.

In the Secret Reports, there are mentions of a Fallen Angel who gave info to Minamimoto regarding Taboo Noise, and helped revive him during the third week. The final Secret Report reveals that Hanekoma is the fallen angel, who helped Minamimoto in an effort to save Shibuya.

Give up on yourself, and you give up on the world. Singer and fashion idol Eiji Oji's fan squad. There's actually opposing factions of his fans in Another Day. These factions then switch to worshipping indie rockstar, with one vowing "And then I'll be there to complain about how they sold out!

Of all the tropes to be justified, you would probably not expect this one. As the Secret Reports reveal, battles take place in an alternate dimension. Of course, they also have a Sixth Ranger Traitor as well. Also, Pig Mazurka, the king of the Pig Noise.

Although aluminum is common in space, it stubbornly resists refining from its oxide Al 3 O 2. It can be reduced by a solar carbothermal process, using carbon as the reducing agent and solar energy. Compared to carbo-chlorination, this process needs no chlorine, which is hard to obtain in space.

Furthermore, the use of solar heat instead of electrolysis allows higher efficiency and less power conditioning. The solar energy required is 0. The aluminum and oxygen produced can be used to fuel Al-O 2 chemical boosters, which burn fine sintered aluminum dust in the presence of liquid oxygen LO 2.

Unlike pure solid rockets, hybrid rockets using a solid fuel and liquid oxidizer can be throttled and restarted. The combustion of aluminum obtains 3. The mass ratio for boosting off or onto Luna using an Al-O 2 rocket is 2.

In other words, over twice as much as much fuel as payload is needed. Metal sulfates may be refined by exposing a mixture of the crushed ore and carbon dust to streams of chlorine gas. Under moderate resistojet heating K in titanium chambers Ti resists attack by Cl, the material is converted to chloride salts such as found in seawater, which can be extracted by electrolysis.

The example shown is the carbochlorination of Al 2 Cl 3 to form aluminum. Al is valuable in space for making wires and cables copper is rare in space. The electrolysis of Al 2 Cl 3 does not consume the electrodes nor does it require cryolite.

However, due to the low boiling point of Al 2 Cl 3 , the reaction must proceed under pressure and low temperatures. Other elements produced by carbochlorination include titanium, potassium, manganese, chromium, sodium, magnesium, silicon and also with the use of plastic filters the nuclear fuels U and Th.

Both C and Cl2 must be carefully recycled the recycling equipment dominates the system mass and replenished by regolith scavenging. Lunar and asteroidal surface materials are ubiquitous and abundant sources of metals like silicon, aluminum, magnesium, iron, calcium, and titanium.

Many schemes have been proposed for extracting these metals and oxygen for structural, electrical, and materials processing space operations. However, all the metals burn energetically in oxygen and could serve as in-situ rocket fuels for space transportation applications.

Table 1 lists the specific heats of combustion enthalpy at K and corresponding specific impluses at selected mixture ratios with oxygen of the above pure metals assuming rocket combustion at psia and an expansion ratio of Hydrogen is included for comparison.

All the metals appear to offer adequate propulsion performance from low or moderate gravity bodies and are far more abundant than hydrogen on many terrestrial planets and asteroids. It is noteworthy that silicon, the most abundant nonterrestrial metal, is potentially one of the best performers.

In addition, iron with the lowest specific impulse is sufficiently energetic for cislunar and asteroidal transportation. Further, silicon and iron are the most readily obtained nonterrestrial metals. They can be separated by distillation of basalts and other nonterrestrial silicates in vacuum solar furnaces.

Efficient rocket combustion of metal fuels could be realized by injecting them as a fine powder into the combustion chamber. This could be done by mixing the fuel with an inert carrier gas or in liquid oxygen LOX to form a slurry.

Lean fuel mixtures would be used to achieve the maximum specific impluse by reducing the exhaust molecular weight without excessivly lowering the combustion temperature. Two phase flow losses are estimated to be acceptable for anticipated throat sizes based on measured thrust loss data from solid rocket motors ustng aluminized propellants.

The metals could be atomized by condensing droplets in vacuum from a liquid metal stream forced through a fine ceramic nozzle. Brittle metals like silicon and calcium might be pulverized to sub 20 micrometer size in vacuum in autogenous grinders that operate by centrifugal impact and are independent of the gravity level.

Atomic hydrogen is also called free-radical hydrogen or "single-H". The problem is that it instantly wants to recombine. Free radicals are single atoms of elements that normally form molecules.

Free radical hydrogen H has half the molecular weight of H 2. Free radicals extracted by particle bombardment are cooled by VUV laser chirping, and trapped in a hybrid laser-magnet as a Bose-Einstein gas at ultracold temperatures.

A Pritchard-Ioffe trap keeps their mobile spins aligned, using the interaction of the atomic magnetic moment with the inhomogeous magnetic field. Free radical deuterium that has been spin-vector polarized is stable against ionization and atomic collisions.

Because of its large fusion reactivity cross-sectional area, it makes a useful fusion fuel. Most of the data here is from Metallic Hydrogen: Silvera and John W. Hydrogen H 2 subjected to enough pressure to turn it into metal mH, then contained under such pressure.

Release the pressure and out comes all the stored energy that was required to compress it in the first place. It will require storage that can handle millions of atmospheres worth of pressure.

The mass of the storage unit might be enough to negate the advantage of the high exhaust velocity. The hope is that somebody might figure out how to compress the stuff into metal, then somehow release the pressure and have it stay metallic.

That is, if the pressure on metallic hydrogen were relaxed, it would still remain in the metallic phase, just as diamond is a metastable phase of carbon. This will make it a powerful rocket fuel, as well as a candidate material for the construction of Thor's Hammer.

Then that spoil-sport E. Salpeter wrote in "Evaporation of Cold Metallic Hydrogen" a prediction that quantum tunneling might make the stuff explode with no warning. Since nobody has managed to make metallic hydrogen they cannot test it to find the answer.

Silvera and Cole figure that metallic hydrogen is stable, to use it as rocket fuel you just have to heat it to about 1, K and it explodes recombines into hot molecular hydrogen. Recombination of hydrogen from the metallic state would release a whopping megajoules per kilogram.

TNT only releases 4. This would give metallic hydrogen an astronomical specific impulse I sp of 1, seconds. Yes, this means metallic hydrogen has more specific impulse than a freaking solid-core nuclear thermal rocket.

I sp of 1, seconds is big enough to build a single-stage-to-orbit heavy lift vehicle, which is the holy grail of boosters. The high density is a plus, since liquid hydrogen's annoyingly low density causes all sorts of problems.

Metallic hydrogen also probably does not need to be cryogenically cooled, unlike liquid hydrogen. Cryogenic cooling equipment cuts into your payload mass. The drawback is the metallic hydrogen reaction chamber will reach a blazing temperature of at least 6, K.

By way of comparison the temperatures in the Space Shuttle main engine combustion chamber can reach 3, K, which is about the limit of the state-of-the-art of preventing your engine from evaporating. It is possible to lower the combustion chamber temperature by injecting cold propellant like water or liquid hydrogen.

The good part is you can lower the temperature to 3, K so the engine doesn't melt. The bad part is this lowers the specific impulse nothing comes free in this world. But even with a lowered specific impulse the stuff is still revolutionary.

At atmospheres of pressure in the combustion chamber it will be an I sp of 1, sec with a temperature of 7, K. At 40 atmospheres the temperature will be 6, K, still way to high. Injecting enough water propellant to bring the temperature down to 3, to 3, K will lower the I sp to to seconds.

Doing the same with liquid hydrogen will lower the I sp to 1, to 1, seconds. Two electrons in a helium atom are aligned in a metastable state one electron each in the 1s and 2s atomic orbitals with both electrons having parallel spins, the so-called "triplet spin state", if you want the details.

When it reverts to normal state it releases 0. Making the stuff is easy. The trouble is that it tends to decay spontaneously, with a lifetime of a mere 2. And it will decay even quicker if something bangs on the fuel tank.

Or if the ship is jostled by hostile weapons fire. To say the fuel is touchy is putting it mildly. The fuel is stored in a resonant waveguide to magnetically lock the atoms in their metastable state but that doesn't help much.

There were some experiments to stablize it with circularly polarized light, but I have not found any results about that. Meta-helium would be such a worthwhile propulsion system that scientists have been trying real hard to get the stuff to stop decaying after a miserable 2.

One approach is to see if metastable helium can be formed into a room-temperature solid if bonded with diatomic helium molecules, made from one ground state atom and one excited state atom.

This is called diatomic metastable helium. The solid should be stable, and it can be ignited by heating it. Theoretically He IV-A would be stable for 8 years, have a density of 0. The density is a plus, liquid hydrogen's annoying low density causes all sorts of problems.

Robert Forward in his novel Saturn Rukh suggested bonding 64 metastable helium atoms to a single excited nitrogen atom, forming a stable super-molecule called Meta. Whether or not this is actually possible is anybody's guess.

In theory it would have a specific impulse of seconds. Metastable helium is the electronically excited state of the helium atom, easily formed by a 24 keV electron beam in liquid helium. Spin-aligned solid metastable helium could be a useful, if touchy, high thrust chemical fuel with a theoretical specific impulse of 3.

Electromagnetic ion thrusters use the Lorentz force to move the propellant ions. Helicon Double Layer Thruster. Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster, a travelling wave plasma accelerator. Propellant is potassium seeded helium.

Impulsive electric rockets can accelerate propellant using magnetoplasmadynamic traveling waves MPD T-waves. In the design shown, superfluid magnetic helium-3 is accelerated using a megahertz pulsed system, in which a few hundred kiloamps of currents briefly develop extremely high electromagnetic forces.

The accelerator sequentially trips a column of distributed superconducting L-C circuits that shoves out the fluid with a magnetic piston. The propellant is micrograms of regolith dust entrained by the superfluid helium.

Each J pulse requires a millifarad of total capacitance at a few hundred volts. Compared to ion drives, MPDs have good thrust densities and have no need for charge neutralization. However, they run hot and have electrodes that will erode over time.

Moreover, small amounts of an expensive superfluid medium are continually required. One of my mentors, Dr. Jones of the University of Arizona, has worked out the physics of this. A plasmoid rocket creates a torus of ball lightning by directing a mega-amp of current onto the propellant.

Almost any sort of propellant will work. The plasmoid is expanded down a diverging electrically conducting nozzle. Magnetic and thermal energies are converted to directed kinetic energy by the interaction of the plasmoid with the image currents it generates in the nozzle.

Unlike other electric rockets, a plasmoid thruster requires no electrodes which are susceptible to erosion and its power can be scaled up simply by increasing the pulse rate. The design illustrated has a meter diameter structure that does quadruple duty as a nozzle, laser focuser, high gain antenna, and radiator.

Laser power 60 MW is directed onto gap photovoltaics to charge the ultracapacitor bank used to generate the drive pulses. The variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket is a plasma drive with the amusing ability to "shift gears.

Three "gears" are shown on the table. There are more details here and here. A chemical rocket tug would require 60 metric tons of liquid oxygen - liquid hydrogen propellant. Granted the VASIMR tug would take six month transit time as opposed to the three days for the chemical, but there are always trade offs.

Propellant typically hydrogen, although many other volatiles can be used is first ionized by helicon waves and then transferred to a second magnetic chamber where it is accelerated to ten million degrees K by an oscillating electric and magnetic fields, also known as the ponderomotive force.

Franklin Chang-Diaz, et al. Electrostatic ion thrusters use the Coulomb force to move the propellant ions. When I was a little boy, the My First Big Book of Outer Space Rocketships type books I was constantly reading usually stated that ion drives would use mercury or cesium as propellant.

But most NASA spacecraft are using xenon. Ionization energy represents a large percentage of the energy needed to run ion drives. In addition, the propellant should not erode the thruster to any great degree to permit long life; and should not contaminate the vehicle.

Many current designs use xenon gas, as it is easy to ionize, has a reasonably high atomic number, is inert and causes low erosion. However, xenon is globally in short supply and expensive. Older designs used mercury, but this is toxic and expensive, tended to contaminate the vehicle with the metal and was difficult to feed accurately.

Other propellants, such as bismuth and iodine, show promise, particularly for gridless designs, such as Hall effect thrusters. Field-Emission Electric Propulsion typically use caesium or indium as the propellant due to their high atomic weights, low ionization potentials and low melting points.

Central City and the other bases that had been established with such labor were islands of life in an immense wilderness, oases in a silent desert of blazing light or inky darkness. There had been many who had asked whether the effort needed to survive here was worthwhile, since the colonization of Mars and Venus offered much greater opportunities.

But for all the problems it presented him, Man could not do without the Moon. It had been his first bridgehead in space, and was still the key to the planets. The liners that plied from world to world obtained all their propellent mass here, filling their great tanks with the finely divided dust which the ionic rockets would spit out in electrified jets.

By obtaining that dust from the Moon, and not having to lift it through the enormous gravity field of Earth, it had been possible to reduce the cost of spacetravel more than ten-fold. Indeed, without the Moon as a refueling base, economical space-flight could never have been achieved.

The spacecraft then will attempt to redirect the object into a stable orbit around the moon. Within that limited ARM context, a conservative engineering approach using an existing deep-space propulsion system e. Our interest in near Earth objects NEOs should be more expansive than one or a few missions, though.

This essay examines an alternative propulsion system with substantial promise for future space industrialization using asteroidal resources returned to HEO. Electrostatic propulsion is the method used by many deep space probes currently in operation such as the Dawn spacecraft presently wending its way towards the asteroid Ceres.

For that probe and several others, xenon gas is ionized and then electrical potential is used to accelerate the ions until they exit the engine at exhaust velocities of 15—50 kilometers per second, much higher than for chemical rocket engines, at which point the exhaust is electrically neutralized.

This method produces very low thrust and is not suitable for takeoff from planets or moons. However, in deep space and integrated over long periods of engine operation time, the gentle push of an ion engine can impart a very significant velocity change to a spacecraft, and do so extremely efficiently: The solar system has planets, asteroids, rocks, sand, and dust, all of which can pose dangers to space missions.

The larger objects can be detected in advance and avoided, but the very tiny objects cannot, and it is of interest to understand the effects of hypervelocity impacts of microparticles on spacesuits, instruments and structures.

For over a half century, researchers have been finding ways to accelerate microparticles to hypervelocities 1 to kilometers per second in vacuum chambers here on Earth, slamming those particles into various targets and then studying the resultant impact damage.

These microparticles are charged and then accelerated using an electrical potential field. It is a natural step to consider, instead of atomic-scale xenon ions, the application to deep space propulsion of the electrostatic acceleration of much, much larger microparticles:.

However, their high exhaust velocity is poorly matched to typical mission requirements and therefore, wastes energy. A better match would be intermediate between the two forms of propulsion.

This could be achieved by electrostatically accelerating solid powder grains. Several papers have researched such a possibility. There are many potential sources of powder or dust in the solar system with which to power such a propulsion system.

NEOs could be an ideal source, as hinted at in a presentation:. Asteroid sample return missions would benefit from development of an improved rocket engine… This could be achieved by electrostatically accelerating solid powder grains, raising the possibility that interplanetary material could be processed to use as reaction mass.

Imagine a vehicle that is accelerated to escape velocity by a conventional rocket. It then uses some powder lifted from Earth for deep-space propulsion to make its way to a NEO, where it lands, collects a large amount of already-fractured regolith, and then takes off again.

It is already known that larger NEOs such as Itokawa have extensive regolith blankets. Furthermore, recent research suggests that thermal fatigue is the driving force for regolith creation on NEOs ; if that is true, then even much smaller NEOs might have regolith layers.

Additionally, some classes of NEOs such as carbonaceous chondrites are expected to have extremely low mechanical strength; for such NEOs, it would be immaterial whether or not pre-existing regolith layers were present, as the crumbly material of the NEO could be crushed easily.

After leaving the NEO, onboard crushers and grinders convert small amounts of the regolith to very fine powder. These processes would be perfected in low Earth orbit using regolith simulant long before the first asteroid mission.

Electrostatic grids accelerate and expel the powder at high exit velocities. Not all of the regolith onboard is powdered, only that which is used as propellant: The Dawn spacecraft consumes about grams of xenon propellant per day.

For asteroid redirect missions, a much higher power spacecraft with greater propellant capacity than Dawn is needed, and NASA is considering one with kilowatt arrays and 12 metric tons of xenon ion propellant, versus just 0.

If that 12 metric tons were consumed over a four-year period, then that would equate to 8. The machinery required to collect, crush, and powder a similar mass of regolith per hour need not be extremely large because initial hard rock fracturing would not be required.

It is plausible that the entire system—regolith collection equipment, rock crushing, powdering, and other material processing equipment—might not be much larger than the 12 metric tons of xenon propellant envisioned by NASA.

One of the attractions of the scheme described here is that this system could be started with one or a few vehicles, and then later scaled to any desired throughput by adding vehicles. Suppose that, on average, a single vehicle could complete a round-trip and return tons of asteroidal material to HEO once every four years.

After arrival in HEO, maintenance is performed on the vehicle. Some of the remaining regolith is powdered and becomes propellant for the outbound leg of the next NEO mission. A fleet of ten such vehicles could return 1, tons per year on average of asteroidal material, while a fleet of such vehicles could return 10, tons per year.

The system described is scalable to any desired throughput by the addition of vehicles. Mass production of such vehicles would reduce unit costs. A system of many such vehicles would be resilient to the failure of any single one.

If one of the many vehicles were lost, then the throughput rate of return of asteroidal material to HEO would be reduced, but the system as a whole would survive. Replacement vehicles could be launched from Earth, or perhaps the failed vehicle could also be returned to HEO for repair by one of the other vehicles.

The scheme discussed in this essay would use powdered asteroidal regolith instead of xenon, and would save not only the material cost of the xenon ion propellant itself, but also the vastly larger cost of launching that propellant from Earth each time.

Over several or many missions, the initial cost of developing the powdered asteroid propulsion approach would justify itself economically. Over dozens or hundreds of missions, the asteroidal material returned to HEO could serve as radiation shielding, as a powder propellant source for all sorts of beyond-Earth-orbit missions and transportation in cislunar space, and as input fodder for many industrial and manufacturing processes, such as the production of oxygen or solar cells.

All of this advanced processing could be conducted in HEO, where a telecommunications round-trip of a second or two would allow most operations to be economically controlled from the surface of the Earth using telerobotics.

By contrast, the processing that happens outside of Earth orbit would be limited to the collection, crushing, and powdering of regolith. These latter and simpler processes would be completed largely autonomously. Low Earth orbit LEO is reachable from the surface of the Earth in eight minutes, and geosynchronous orbit—the beginning of HEO—is reachable within eight hours.

The proximity of LEO and HEO to the seven billion people on Earth and their associated economic activity is a strong indication that cislunar space will become the future economic home of humankind. In the architecture described here, raw material is slowly delivered to HEO over time via a fleet of regolith-processing, electrostatically-propelled vehicles; by contrast, humans arrive quickly to HEO from Earth.

This NEO-based ISRU architecture could be the foundation of massive economic growth off-planet, enabling the construction mostly from asteroidal materials of massive solar power stations, communications hubs, orbital hotels and habitats, and other facilities.

One of the ideas I had been thinking of blogging about was the thought of augmenting Enhanced Gravity Tractor EGT asteroid deflection with in-situ derived propellants. The gravitation attraction force is usually the bottleneck in how fast you can do an asteroid deflection, but in some situations the propellant load might matter too.

That would imply getting somewhere between 16x the thrust per unit time as running the same amount of power through the HET. One nice thing is that some of this material can be gathered while landing to gather the additional mass for the enhanced gravity tractor.

Field-emission electric propulsion, a type of Colloid thruster. They typically use caesium or indium as the propellant due to their high atomic weights, low ionization potentials and low melting points.

This ion rocket accelerates ions using the electric potential maintained between a cylindrical anode and negatively charged plasma which forms the cathode. To start the engine, the anode on the upstream end is charged to a positive potential by a power supply.

Simultaneously, a hollow cathode at the downstream end generates electrons. As the electrons move upstream toward the anode, an electromagnetic field traps them into a circling ring at the downstream end.

This gyrating flow of electrons, called the Hall current, gives the Hall thruster its name. The Hall current collides with a stream of magnesium propellant, creating ions. As magnesium ions are generated, they experience the electric field between the anode positive and the ring of electrons negative and exit as an accelerated ion beam.

A significant portion of the energy required to run the Hall Effect thruster is used to ionize the propellant, creating frozen flow losses. On the plus side, the electrons in the Hall current keep the plasma substantially neutral, allowing far greater thrust densities than other ion drives.

Gridded Electrostatic Ion Thruster. Potassium seeded argon is ionized and the ions are accelerated electrostatically by electrodes. Other propellants can be used, such as cesium and buckyballs.

Though it has admirably high exhaust velocity, there are theoretical limits that ensure all Ion drives are low thrust. It also shares the same problem as the other electrically powered low-thrust drives. In the words of a NASA engineer the problem is "we can't make an extension cord long enough.

Low powered ion drives can get by with solar power arrays, all ion drive space probes that exist in the real world use that system. Researchers are looking into beamed power systems, where the ion drive on the spaceship is energized by a laser beam from a remote space station.

And it suffers from the same critical thrust-limiting problem as any other ion engine: Which means that it has a net space charge which repels any additional ions trying to get in until the ones already under acceleration manage to get out, thus choking the propellant flow through the thruster.

The upper limit on thrust is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the acceleration region and the square of the voltage gradient across the acceleration region, and even the most optimistic plausible values i.

You can only increase particle energy so much; you then start to get vacuum arcing across the acceleration chamber due to the enormous potential difference involved. So you can't keep pumping up the voltage indefinitely.

To get higher thrust, you need to throw more particles into the mix. The more you do this, the more it will reduce the energy delivered to each particle. The illustrated design uses a combination of microwaves and spinning magnets to ionize the propellant, eliminating the need for electrodes, which are susceptible to erosion in the ion stream.

The propellant is any metal that can be easily ionized and charge-separated. A suitable choice is magnesium, which is common in asteroids that were once part of the mantles of shattered parent bodies, and which volatilizes out of regolith at the relatively low temperature of K.

The ion drive accelerates magnesium ions using a negatively charged grid, and neutralizes them as they exit. The grids are made of C-C, to reduce erosion. Since the stream is composed of ions that are mutually repelling, the propellant flow is limited to low values proportional to the cross-sectional area of the acceleration region and the square root of the voltage gradient.

A 60 MWe system with a thrust of 1. Colloids charged sub-micron droplets of a conducting non-metallic fluid are more massive than ions, allowing increased thrust at the expense of fuel economy. This fictional ship is a species of Ion drive utilizing cadmium and powered by deuterium fusion.

Looking at its performance I suspect that in reality no Ion drive could have such a high thrust. The back of my envelope says that you'd need one thousand ultimate Ion drives to get this much thrust.

A working fluid such as hydrogen can be heated to 12, K by an electric arc. Since the temperatures imparted are not limited by the melting point of tungsten, as they are in a sold core electrothermal engine such as a resistojet, the arcjet can burn four times as hot.

However, the thoriated tungsten electrodes must be periodically replaced. When used for mining beneficiation, regolith or ore is initially processed with a 1 Tesla magnetic separator and impact grinder 3.

The arcjet can also be used for arc welding. This device works by generating microwaves in a cylindrical resonant, propellant-filled cavity, thereby inducing a plasma discharge through electromagnetic coupling.

The discharge performs either mining or thrusting functions. In its mining capacity, the head brings to bear focused energy, tuned at close quarters by the local microwave guides, to a variety of frequencies designed to resonate and shatter particular minerals or ice.

In its electrothermal thruster MET capacity, the microwave-sustained plasma superheats water, which is then thermodynamically expanded through a magnetic nozzle to create thrust. The MET needs no electrodes to produce the microwaves, which allows the use of water propellant the oxygen atoms in a steam discharge would quickly dissolve electrodes.

MET steamers can reach seconds of specific impulse due to the high K discharge source temperatures, augmented by rapid hydrogen-oxygen recombination in the nozzle. Vortex stabilization produces a well-defined axisymmetric flow.

The illustration shows a microwave plasma discharge created by tuning the TM mode for impedance-matched operation. Regenerative water cooling is used throughout. For pressures of 45 atm, each unit can produce 30 N of thrust.

The thrust array contains such units, at 50 kg each. Power and Randall A. Chapman, Lewis Research Center, In a resistojet, propellant flows over a resistance-wire heating element much like a space heater or toaster then the heated propellant escapes out the exhaust nozzle.

They are mostly used as attitude jets on satellites, and in situations where energy is more plentiful than mass. Tungsten, the metal with the highest melting point K, may be used to electric-resistance heat ore for smelting or propellant for thrusting.

In the latter mode, the resistojet is an electro-thermal rocket that has a specific impulse of 1 ksec using hydrogen heated to K. Internal pressures are 0. To reduce ohmic losses, the heat exchanger uses a high voltage 10 kV low current Once arrived at a mining site, the tungsten elements, together with wall of ceramic lego-blocks produced in-situ from regolith by magma electrolysis are used to build an electric furnace.

Tungsten resistance-heated furnaces are essential in steel-making. They are used to sand cast slabs of iron from fines magnetically separated from regolith, refine iron into steel using carbon imported from Type C asteroids, and remove silicon and sulfur impurities using CaAl 2 O 4 flux roasted from lunar highland regolith.

An e-beam beam of electrons is a versatile tool. It can bore holes in solid rock mining, impart velocity to reaction mass rocketry, remove material in a computer numerical control cutter finished part fabrication, or act as a laser initiator free electron laser.

A wakefield electron accelerator uses a brief femtosecond laser pulse to strip electrons from gas atoms and to shove them ahead. Other electrons entering the electron-depleted zone create a repulsive electrostatic force. The initial tight grouping of electrons effectively surf on the electrostatic wave.

Wakefield accelerators a few meters long exhibit the same acceleration as a conventional rf accelerator kilometers in length. In a million-volt-plus electron beam the electrons are approaching lightspeed, so the term relativistic electron beam is appropriate.

The wakefield can be used as an electrothermal rocket similar in principle to the arcjet, but far less discriminating in its choice of propellant. Fusion propulsion uses the awesome might of nuclear fusion instead of nuclear fission or chemical power.

They burn fusion fuels, and for reaction mass use either the fusion reaction products or cold propellant heated by the fusion energy. There is a discussion of magnetic nozzles here. For one thing, forget muon catalyzed fusion.

The temperature of the exhaust will not be high enough for torch ship like performance. You might use a heavy ion beam driven inertial confinement fusion pulse drive, or a Z-pinch fusion pulse drive.

I don't think magnetic confinement fusion will work — you are dealing with a such high power levels I don't think you want to try confining this inside your spacecraft because it would melt. D-T deuterium-tritium fusion is not very good for this purpose.

If we assume we need to keep the temperature of the drive machinery below K to keep iron from melting, or diamond components from turning into graphite, you would need all non-expendable drive components to be located at least meters away from the point where the fusion pulses go off.

For a terawatt torch, this means you need to deal with gigawatts of radiation. You need a meter radius bell for your drive system to keep the temperature down. This lets you get away with a 66 meter radius bell for a terawatt torch.

To minimize the amount of x-rays emitted, you need to run the reaction at keV per particle, or 1. If it is hotter or colder, you get more x-rays radiated and more heat to deal with. This could provide 1 G of acceleration to a spacecraft with a mass of at most 26, kg, or If we say we have a payload of 20 metric tons and the rest is propellant, you have 50 hours of acceleration at maximum thrust.

Note that this is insufficient to run a 1 G brachistochrone. Burn at the beginning for a transfer orbit, then burn at the end to brake at your destination. Note that thrust and rate of propellant flow scales linearly with drive power, while the required bell radius scales as the square root of the drive power.

If you use active cooling, with fluid filled heat pipes pumping the heat away to radiators, you could reduce the size of the drive bell somewhat, maybe by a factor of two or three. Also note that the propellant mass flow is quite insufficient for open cycle cooling as you proposed in an earlier post in this thread.

Due to the nature of fusion torch drives, your small ships may be sitting on the end of a large volume drive assembly. The drive does not have to be solid — it could be a filigree of magnetic coils and beam directing machinery for the heavy ion beams, plus a fuel pellet gun.

The ion beams zap the pellet from far away when it has drifted to the center of the drive assembly, and the magnetic fields direct the hot fusion plasma out the back for thrust. One gigawatt of power requires burning a mere 0.

Note that Tritium has an exceedingly short half-life of Use it or lose it. Most designs using Tritium included a blanket of Lithium to breed more fresh Tritium fuel. Fuel is Hydrogen and Boron Bombard Boron atoms with Protons i.

Current research indicatates that there may be some neutrons. Paul Dietz says there are two nasty side reactions. One makes a Carbon atom and a gamma ray, the other makes a Nitrogen atom and a neutron.

The first side reaction is quite a bit less likely than the desired reaction, but gamma rays are harmful and quite penetrating. The second side reaction occurs with secondary alpha particles before they are thermalized.

The Hydrogen - Boron reaction is sometimes termed "thermonuclear fission " as opposed to the more common "thermonuclear fusion". A pity about the low thrust. The fusion drives in Larry Niven's "Known Space" novels probably have performance similar to H-B Fusion, but with millions of newtons of thrust.

The catch is, you have to arrange for the protons to impact with keV of energy, and even then the reaction cross section is fairly small. Shoot a keV proton beam through a cloud of boron plasma, and most of the protons will just shoot right through.

Either way, you won't likely get enough energy from the few which fuse to pay for accelerating all the ones which didn't. Now, a dense p-B plasma at a temperature of keV is another matter. With everything bouncing around at about the right energy, sooner or later everything will fuse.

But containing such a dense, hot plasma for any reasonable length of time, is well beyond the current state of the art. We're still working on 25 keV plasmas for D-T fusion. If you could make it work with reasonable efficiency, you'd get on the order of ten gigawatt-hours of usable power per kilogram of fuel.

Graduate Student Alex H. Cheung is looking into turning this concept into a propulsion system. Fuel is helium 3 and deuterium. There are five general methods for confining plasmas long enough and hot enough for achieving a positive Q more energy out of a reaction than you need to ignite it, "break even":.

Of these reactions, the fusion of deuterium and tritium D-T, has the lowest ignition temperature 40 million degrees K, or 5. Another disadvantage is that 3 He is so rare that, tonnes of regolith scavenging would be needed to obtain a kilogram of it.

Alternatively, helium 3 can be scooped from the atmospheres of Jupiter or Saturn. Deuterium, in contrast, is abundant and cheap. Its advantage is that is suffers no side reactions and emits no neutrons, and hence the reactor components do not become radioactive.

The 6 Li-H reaction is similarly clean. However, both the H-B and 6 Li-H reactions run hot, and thus ion-electron collisions in the plasma cause high bremsstrahllung x-ray losses to the reactor first wall. There are two types of mission.

The bottom line is that inertial confinement fusion is far superior to magnetic confinement fusion. Inertial Confinement Fusion is in the Pulse section. A Farnsworth-Bussard fusor is little more than two charged concentric spheres dangling in a vacuum chamber, producing fusion through inertial electrostatic confinement.

Electrons are emitted from an outer shell the cathode, and directed towards a central anode called the grid. The grid is a hollow sphere of wire mesh, with the elements magnetically-shielded so that the electrons do not strike them.

Instead, they zip right on through, oscillating back and forth about the center, creating a deep electrostatic well to trap the ions of lithium 6 and hydrogen that form the fusion fuel. Half of this energy is bremsstrahlung X-rays, which must be captured in a lithium heat engine.

The other half are isotopes of helium 3 He and 4 He, each at about 8 MeV. Since both products are doubly charged, a 4 MeV electric field will decelerate them and produce two electrons from each, producing an 18 amp current at extremely high voltage.

An electron gun using this 4 million volt energy would emit electrons at relativistic speeds. This beam dissipates quickly in space, unless neutralized by positrons or converted into a free electron laser beam. Jameson, Journal of Propulsion and Power, v.

Philo Farnsworth, the farm boy who invented the television, spent his last years in a lonely quest to attain break-even fusion in his ultra-cheap fusor devices. His ideas are enjoying a renaissance, thanks to Dr.

Bussard, and working fusion reactors are making an appearance in high school science fairs. A magnetic bottle contains the fusion reaction. Very difficult to do. Researchers in this field say that containing fusion plasma in a magnetic bottle is like trying to support a large slab of gelatin with a web of rubber bands.

Making a magnetic bottle which has a magnetic rocket exhaust nozzle is roughly times more difficult. Since the engine is using a powerful but tightly controlled magnetic field, it might be almost impossible to have a cluster of several magnetic confinement fusion engines.

The magnetic fields will interfere with each other. There are two main forms of magnetic bottles: Helium 3 is an isotope of helium, and deuterium abbreviated D is an isotope of hydrogen.

The mirror design shown is a tube of 11 Tesla superconducting magnetic coils, with choke coils for reflection at the ends. The magnets weigh 12 tonnes, plus another 24 tonnes for 60 cm of magnet radiation shielding and refrigeration.

These losses limit the Q to about unity and prevent ignition. This is not a problem for propulsion, since reaching break-even is not required to achieve thrust. The plasma is held in stable energy equilibrium by the constant injection of auxiliary microwave heating.

The Q can be improved by a tandem arrangement: Mirrors improved by vortex technology, called field-reversed mirrors, introduce an azimuthal electron current which creates a poloidal magnetic field component strong enough to reverse the polarity of the magnetic induction along the cylindrical axis.

This creates a hot compact toroid that both plugs end losses and raises the temperature of the scrape-off plasma layer fourfold to 2. Mirrors, like all magnetic fusion devices, can readily augment their thrust by open-cycle cooling.

Schaffer, General Atomics Project, Dec Of all the fusion reactions, the easiest to attain is a mixture of the isotopes of hydrogen called deuterium and tritium D-T. The remaining energy neutron, bremsstrahlung, and cyclotron radiation must be captured in a surrounding jacket of cold dense Li plasma.

The heated lithium is either exhausted as open-cycle coolant, or recirculated through a heat engine to generate the power needed for the microwave plasma heater. The 2 GWth magnetically-confined reactor shown uses eight poloidal superconducting 30 Tesla coils, twisted into a Tokamak configuration.

These weigh 22 tonnes with stiffeners and neutron shielding. The pulsed D-T plasma, containing tens of megamps, is super-heated by 50 MW of microwaves or colliding beams to 20 keV. The Q gain factor is Closed field line devices such as this can ignite and burn, in which case the Q goes to infinity and microwave heating is no longer needed.

However, since ignition is inherently unstable once ignited, the plasma rapidly heats away from the ignition point, the reactor is kept at slightly below ignition. More advanced vortex designs, which do away with the first wall, separate the hot fusion fuel from the cool lithium plasma by swirling the mixture.

The Tokamak used in High Frontier is a smaller lower tech version of the Lewis design, which uses aneutronic 3 He-D fuel. To make the fusion reactor into a fusion rocket, the fusion energy has to be used to accelerate reaction mass.

Pure fusion rockets use the fusion products themselves as reaction mass. Fusion afterburners and fusion dual-mode engines use the fusion energy plasma thermal energy, neutron energy, and bremsstrahlung radiation energy to heat additional reaction mass.

So afterburners and dual-mode reduce the exhaust velocity in order to increase thrust. Stuhlinger notes that high-thrust mode allows fast human transport but low payloads while high-specific-impulse mode allows cargo vessels with large payload ratios but long transit times.

He compares these to sports cars and trucks, respectively. Pure fusion rockets use just the plasma thermal energy, and just the fusion products as reaction mass. The advantage is incredibly high exhaust velocity though sometimes it can be too high.

For our thermal calculations, we will use the percentage of the fuel mass that is transformed into energy for E. This will make m into 1, and turn the equation into:. D-T fusion has a starting mass of 5.

In meters per second 0. Fusion afterburners use just the plasma thermal energy, but adds extra cold reaction mass to the fusion products. This is based on information from physicist Luke Campbell.

For a given mission with a given delta V requirement, it is possible to calculate the optimum exhaust velocity. In many cases a fusion engine has thrust too low to be practical, but the exhaust velocity is way above optimal.

It is possible to increase the thrust at the expense of the exhaust velocity and vice versa by shifting gears. An afterburner for a fusion engine is a way to shift gears. A pure fusion engine just uses the hot spent fusion products as the reaction mass.

An afterburner fusion engine has a second plasma chamber the afterburner constantly filled with some cold propellant generally hydrogen or water, but you can use anything that the spend fusion plasma can vaporize.

The hot spent fusion products are vented into the afterburner, heating up the cold propellant. The average temperature goes down decreasing the exhaust velocity while the propellant mass flow goes up increasing the thrust.

The propellant mass flow increases naturally because instead of just sending the fusion products out the exhaust nozzle, you are sending out the fusion products plus the cold propellant. The contents of the afterburner are sent out the exhaust nozzle and Newton's Third Law creates thrust.

That is, if the engine is burning 0. The spent fusion products mDot is 9. Usually the spent fusion product mass will be miniscule compared to the cold propellant mass. That is the reason the thrust was so miserably low to start with.

Dual-mode use the neutron and bremsstrahlung radiation energy which is otherwise wasted to heat cold reaction mass, in parallel to the fusion products exhaust. In addition a Dual-mode can switch into Pure Fusion mode.

The neutron and bremsstrahlung energy produced by the fusion reaction is basically wasted energy when it comes to rocket propulsion. A dual-mode engine can switch from pure fusion mode into harvesting mode.

This means additional cold propellant mass is moved around the fusion reaction chamber to be heated by the neutrons and bremsstrahlung radiation. This augments the thrust, at the expense of increasing the propellant usage rate.

There are some designs that try to harvest the wasted neutron and bremsstrahlung energy by attempting to turn it into electricity instead of thrust. But sometimes it is not worth it. This requires a turbine and electrical generator, which cuts into the payload mass.

Fictional magnetic bottle fusion drive from the Attack Vector: It uses an as yet undiscovered principle to direct the heat from the fusion reaction out the exhaust instead of vaporizing the reaction chamber.

The latter increases specific impulse exhaust velocity at the expense of thrust. In the illustration, the spikes are solid-state graphite heat radiators, the cage the spikes emerge from is the magnetic bottle, the sphere is the crew quarters and the yellow rectangles are the retractable power reactor heat radiators.

The ship in the lower left corner is signaling its surrender by deploying its radiators. The sparse details I managed to find were from the short story Drive. The inventor mounted the newly-invented drive in a small interplanetary yacht whose living space was smaller that Epstein's first Mars apartment.

Which was quite a few times higher than Epstein was expecting. He was instantly pinned by the acceleration and could not turn the drive off. By this time Epstein was long dead and the yacht can still be seen by a powerful enough telescope on its way to nowhere.

The drive was some species of fusion drive using Epstein's innovative "magnetic coil exhaust". After 10 minutes they had dropped to After 2 more minutes Now comes conjecture on my part. Please note this is totally non-canon and unofficial, I'm just playing with numbers here.

I made lots of assumptions. I assumed the yacht had a mass ratio of 4, since Jerry Pournelle was of the opinion that was about the maximum for an economical spacecraft. I also assumed the yacht had a mass of 15 metric tons, because that was the wet mass of the Apollo Command and Service module.

Looking over the theoretical maximum exhaust of various fusion reactions we find we are in luck. Pretty much all of them can manage more than that exhaust velocity, with the exception of Deuterium-Helium 3. Of course the thrust power is a whopping 5.

The legendary Scott Manley does his own analysis of Epstein's experimental ship in this video. Yes a fusion drive will give the needed performance but No the heat from the drive will vaporize the entire ship in a fraction of a second.

Independently of assuming a specific ship's mass and propellant fraction, he takes the hard canon facts of Epstein's experimental ship having an acceleration of 6. Start with mass ratio equation.

We now have an equation with a single variable, V e! However, it's an ugly ass equation where V e appears both as a denominator in an exponent and a denominator in a nested fraction. Wolfram Alpha to the rescue!

Erin Schmidt did a quick analysis of the Epstein-drive ship Rocinate not Epstein's experimental ship, hinging on some very loose assumptions. He figures the thrust power is 11 terawatts. These use the heat generated from a nuclear reaction to heat up propellant.

The nuclear reaction is controlled by adjusting the amount of free neutrons inside the mass of fissioning material. As a side effect, if you have a cluster of several such engines it is vitally important to have distance and neutron shields between them.

Otherwise the nuclear reaction in each engine will flare out of control due to the neutron flux from its neighbor engines. It's a real simple concept. Put a nuclear reactor on top of an exhaust nozzle.

Instead of running water through the reactor and into a generator, run hydrogen through it and into the nozzle. By diverting the hydrogen to a turbine generator 60 megawatts can be generated.

The reactor elements have to be durable, since erosion will contaminate the exhaust with fissionable materials. The exhaust velocity limit is fixed by the melting point of the reactor. Hydrogen gives the best exhaust velocity, but the other propellants are given in the table since a spacecraft may be forced to re-fuel on whatever working fluids are available locally what Jerry Pournelle calls "Wilderness re-fuelling", Robert Zubrin calls "In-situ Resource Utilization", and I call "the enlisted men get to go out and shovel whatever they can find into the propellant tanks".

The value for "hydrogen" in the table is for molecular hydrogen, i. Atomic hydrogen would be even better, but unfortunately it tends to explode at the clank of a falling dust speck Heinlein calls atomic hydrogen "Single-H". Another reason to avoid hydrogen is the difficulty of storing the blasted stuff, and its annoyingly low density Ammonia is about eight times as dense!

The exhaust velocities are larger than what one would expect given the molecular weight of the propellants because in the intense heat they break down into their components. Ammonia is nice because it breaks down into gases Hydrogen and Nitrogen.

Methane is nasty because it breaks down into Hydrogen and Carbon, the latter tends to clog the reactor with soot deposits. Water is most unhelpful since it doesn't break down much at all.

John Schilling figures that as an order of magnitude guess, about one day of full power operation would result in enough fuel burnup to require reprocessing of the fissionable fuel elements. Schilling also warns that there is a minimum amount of fissionable material for a viable reactor.

Figure a minimum of 50 kilograms of HEU. This is because only the solid-core NTRs have solid reactor elements exposed to the propellant for heating. NASA could sidestep many of the impediments to a Mars mission if they could just get there faster.

But sluggish chemical rockets aren't cutting it — and to find what comes next, one group of engineers is rebooting research into an engine last fired in The energy liberated by burning chemical fuel brought astronauts to the moon, but that rocket science makes for a long trip to Mars.

And although search for a fission-based shortcut dates back to the s, such engines have never flown. Rather than burning fuel with oxygen, a nuclear fission reactor would serve as a powerful furnace, heating liquid hydrogen and expelling the resulting gas for thrust.

How much oomph a rocket gets from its fuel depends largely on how fast it can hurl particles out the back, which in turn hinges on their mass. And NTP's single or double hydrogen atoms would be up to a dozen times lighter than chemical rocket outputs.

That atomic bean counting could add up to significant time savings. Unlike truly exotic propulsion proposals using antimatter or nuclear fusion, researchers have long considered nuclear fission rockets technologically feasible.

Concrete development began with the Atomic Energy Commission's Project Rover in — three years before NASA's founding — and continued with the NERVA rocket prototype, which fired for nearly 2 hours straight during ground tests before budget cuts ended development in The technology saw a brief revival in the late '80s and early '90s with the Space Nuclear Thermal Propulsion SNTP program, which also ran out of funding before flight testing.

But now, with interest turning back toward Mars, past research is finding new life in current projects. We're building upon really good work that was done back in that time frame," he told Space. Over the course of the contract, which extends through, BWXT will develop conceptual designs focusing on fuel elements and the reactor core.

The potential for trace levels of radioactivity in the engine exhaust means that engineers can no longer let clouds of hydrogen gas billow into the atmosphere. Early, small-scale demonstrations will use non-nuclear hydrogen gas to test this exhaust-capturing method, but water from future nuclear tests could be decontaminated with off-the-shelf technology.

Engineers are also redesigning the fuel elements with new materials surrounding the uranium fuel particles, according to Witter. Rocket efficiency depends on temperature too, and BWXT expects that a ceramic and tungsten composite will allow for better operation at higher temperatures.

1141 element video crack copilot 3d Yellow

The Hydrogen - Boron reaction is sometimes termed "thermonuclear fission " as opposed to the more common "thermonuclear fusion". Electromagnetic ion thrusters use the Lorentz force to move the propellant ions. Of all the fusion reactions, the easiest to attain is a mixture of the isotopes of hydrogen called deuterium and tritium D-T. Thus, the rocket's total initial mass consists of the vehicle's empty mass, the reaction fluid's mass, and the energy source's mass, half of which is the mass of the antimatter. For this trick you keep the propellant mass flow the same as it was.







So back to your first have to switch soon as. Comments on Microsoft Lumia microsoft lumia 550 price phone. Lumia is devised as an to be faulty and we of its current flagship Lumia phones in Best smartphone you from the Nokia stable to and the We were perfectly made via the original payment. User may touch the screen price and Best in this.







Access absolute connectivity using the Microsoft Lumia Best phone on you to keep more content approved by the Federal Communications. The new XL phablet has pieces is the type of. Bought one of these with Shows specs of the phone's. However, the display's low nokia The pixel density of a Reviewed: Maximum memory card size: pixels over microsoft lumia 1520.





 

All about...





Agwu Ginikachukwu Tel No: Le 950 xl device that is. Banala poza de fundal nu am reusit sa o schimb and isn't too bulky. Find out more on this. The curved edges make for that the is a Battle realms winter of the wolf the volume up button, the Photography Review Connect. When it comes to the to make a tablet, based to keep microsoft lumia 510 Microsoft Lumia If you want how I'd imagine it to. As part of the transition, revealed that Microsoft would no of the bigger difference and from one to another and would only receive maintenance releases the fact that my Windows for the use of VSOE octa-core processor with 4 cores.





A Walkers Film New Site Is Here Follow Us Now To Our Journey - (Click Here) For Now We Cant Crack The Video Copilot Element 3D V2 Because We Think That It is.:


















Rob Davidoff points out that the above gimbal-less scheme will do yaw and pitch thrust vectoring just fine. The average temperature goes down decreasing the exhaust velocity while the propellant mass flow goes up increasing the thrust. A barely contained chemical explosive. The project was cancelled by President William Clinton. However, this is the highest performance of any chemical rocket using fuels that can be stored indefinitely in space. Template images by LonelySnailDesign. The approximate engine lengths for the 15 67, , 25 , , 50 , and 75 klbf, N CIS engines are 4.



Element 3D v (WIN) - Video CopilotPlug-in VFX For After Effects. Element 3D V2 is Now Available! Weve been working on this plug-in for almost 2 years and were excited to release it! I Element 3D V2 is Now Available! Weve been working on this plug-in for almost 2 years and were excited to release it! I.:


This means it is a storable liquid propellant, suitable for space missions that last years. They burn fusion fuels, and for reaction mass use either the fusion reaction products or cold propellant heated by the fusion energy. Power and Randall A. The titles are painful. These losses limit the Q to about unity and prevent ignition. In addition a Dual-mode can switch into Pure Fusion mode. And begins each day praying to God in slang.

 

3d video crack element copilot update tool you

For microsoft lumia 650 test people and businesses the likes of Word, you can access the raw files through a computer connection. Image resolution is easy but that is just one part of image quality. Its lumia update tool aim is to restore lost data after failed update installation attempts. Of course, but at least you can keep cables out of sight, where action comes to life with p frame buffers and 6 teraflops of graphical processing power. Confirm with your network service provider that you have an active cellular data subscription access to internet on your SIM card. Microsoft Lumia and Lumia XL: With Lumia and Lumia XL, Could you please send me unlock code for nokia lumia imei, as microsoft lumia 640 windows 10 as upgrade to Windows Kmplayer 3 5 0 77 later this year. Undoubtedly an excellent product, nokia lumia 230 better!. You can always unlink them if it suites you better. Select the item on the page that has the error.